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A MANUAL 


OF 


GEOGRAPHY; 


CONTAINING . A 


SOMPREHENSIVE EXPOSITION 


OF THE 


Whole Subject, Adapted to Any Series of 
Geographical Text-Books, 

FOR THE USE OF 

PUPILS AND TEACHERS, 


, 


/ 



FREDERICK 

OF THE 

NORTH-WESTERN OHIO NORMAL SCHOOL. 


ADA , OHIO: 

AONKW WELSH, PRINTER AND PUBLISIIER,. 
lSS- v 







4 

Copyright, 1883 , by I 7 redo rick Afaglott , 











PREFACE. 


Pflftins Manual has been prepared expressly for mv own classes, but it has 
(£■> also been the aim to adapt it to the use of any class in advanced Geography. 

Xo pains have been spared to make it accurate and complete so far as the 
limits of a text-book w ill allow . 

In the experience ot the past eight years in teaching this most useful and 
delightful subject, it has been found that the text-hooks now in use, are not 
adapted to the wants and demands of our classes, and in order to meet these 
requirements, I present this Manual of Geography. 

All statistics, computations, and other matter in its preparation, are 
believed to be as recent and authentic as can he obtained. Absolute accuracy 
can not be attained in a w ork of this kind, covering so vasta field of know ledge, 
and in an age of such rapid scientific progress as this. The first pages of a book 
are often behind the times before the last pages are through the press. 

It is not to be presumed that this Manual contains all that might be 
desired; occasionally something of importance may be omitted, but I content 
inyselt with the hope ot making such changes and additions in the near future 


as may seem necessary. 


In the contemplation of this work, the object was to make a revision of 
“The World as It Is and as It lias Been" or “Comprehensive Geography,” an 
excellent work now out ot' print, hut I found it necessary to add so much new 
matter and to make so many radical changes that but little of it could be used to 
advantage. The parts taken from it have in the main been altered so much that 
they could not be acknowledged by the usual symbols. The chapters on“Phvs:cal 
and Political Geography Compared,” “Occupations,”View* of the World” and 
•‘The Historical Sketches” have been taken with some changes. While thear- 


rangement and language of this book is for the most part original, originality has 
not been aimed at so much as clearness and precision of statement. A n old and 
well-tried definition has not been discarded for the sake of making one of my own. 
A number of tables, statistics, curiosities, reviews, exercises, etc., have been 
added which it is hoped w ill be found useful as well as interesting. The plans 
of using the book and methods of teaching are given at various points in its pages. 

In conclusion, this Manual of Geography is submitted to you. my dear 
pupils and co-workers, with the hope that it will perform the mission of its 






design, and stimulate and encourage you to still greater effort in the pursuit> 
knowledge, and that, in a measure, at least, it may lead us to a better appreciation 
of the Great Author, Designer and Giver ct all. 

To the Public into whose hands this volume may Tall y I inviteyour careful 
examination. For any defects or errors which you may notice or suggestions 
you would make, I will feel myself under lasting obligations to you, if you will 
communicate the same tome. When so many books of excellent merit are- 
in public use by public approval I can hardly excuse my own audacity in j 
attempting what 1 have done; but being unable to find a text-book on Geography 
suited to the wants of our classes and to supply some of the defects in our class; 
book on this subject, is my apology for publishing this Manual and placing it 
in the hands of my pupils. Its plans, methods, and preparation give the results 
of years of experience and patient toil, and if. in a measure, it meets with the 
success anticipated, I shall feel myself amply rewarded for mv work, and so I j 
send the book abroad satisfied with the hope that it will do at least, some good. 

FREDERICK MAG LOTT.. 
North-Western Ohio Normal School, Ada,. Ohio, 

February 3rd, 1883. 






II*—Departments. I.—Definition and derivation of term. 


A PARTIAL CLASSIFICATION. 


I 

I.—Terms. ^ 


u. Straight. 
f i. Lines. - 2. Curved. 

(3. Broken. 


An 


£ I 


II.—Scope: 

The earth math¬ 
ematically con- ■{ 3. Motions. 


i 1. Kinds. 

(2. How measured, 
ji. Plane. 

(2. Curved, 
ji. Spheres. 

/ 2. Spheroids. 

1. Form. 

2. Measurement. ^ 1 ‘ 


J 3. Surfaces. 

I 

^4. Solids. 


lidered. 


4. Orbit. 


( 1 


( 5. Surface. J 
The Earth Geologically 
Considered. 

Land. 

Water. 

Atmosphere. 

Forms of Life. 

f Savage. 


ji. ^ 

(2. 

f 1. Circles. 

2. Points. 

3. Mode of Rep. 

4. Divisions. 


fi. Composition. 

' 11. Land. 

(2. Systems. - 2. Oceanic. 

(3. Atmospheric. 


1. States ofSoc’v 

2. Language. 

^ 3. Government 

1 


Religion. 


| Barbarous. 

J Half Civilized. 

| Civilized. 

[ Enlightened. 
f 1. Object. 11. Monarchy, 
‘lit. 2. Forms. -2. Democracy, 
j 3. Dep’ts. (3. Aristocracy. 


| 4. Origin. 

TT - . 0 - Descriptive, 

ilistorv. - T11 1 • 1 

(2. Philosophical 

f 1. Description. 

2. Local. 

II.—Collateral. 3. Phenomenal. 

| 4. Physiography. 

[5. Topography. 

f 1. Humboldt. 

I 2. Ritter. 

III. —Leading j 3. Guyot. 

Authors. ] 4. Johnston. 

v Maury. 

6 . Etc. 

IV. —Benefits derived from the study 


Vv—History. 


f 1. Scientific - 
( 

Intellectual 

Moral •( 






















GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY, 

ANCIENT AND MODERN. 


CHAPTER I. —INTRODUCTION. 


DEFINITIONS. 


GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY 


Geography is a description of the earth. 

The name Geography is derived from the Greek words ge, the earth, and 
grapho, to write 

Geography includes astronomy , which teaches us that the earth 
is a planet revolving around the sun; it includes geology , whicl 
considers the formation and structure of the globe: it include 
ethnology which treats of the natural races of men; it includes also 
botany , zoology , meteorology , history , etc. There are but few branche 
of learning which are not kindred to it and do not grow out of a 
thorough study of the subject. It is the most comprehensive of all 
studies. But the special province of geography is to describe the 
surface of the earth, its distribution into land and water, and the 
various objects whether physical, moral, or political, which appear 
upon it. 

The science of geography is divided into three divisions, 
mathematical, physical and political. 

1. Mathematical Geography treats of the earth as a planet, 
of its relations to the other heavenly bodies, of its motions and 
their effects, and of the representation of the earth’s surface on 
maps and globes. 

2. Physical Geography treats of the earth in its natural state. 

3. Phenomenal Geography is a branch of Physical Geogra¬ 
phy and treats of the various phenomena of the earth. 

4. Political Geography treats of the earth as divided by man 
and of the social condition of its inhabitants. This is also called 
civil geography. 

5. Physiography is a description of the surface of the earth. 

6 . Minute geographical description of places is called to bo* 
graphy. 


111 j 

:e.,j 


All these different branches treated together. 


ailed des¬ 


criptive geography. 




A MAM Al. OF OE0<; IIAJMIY. 


r. 


8. Local Geography is a description of a particular place on 
the earth’s surface. 

9. History is a record of past events. In its fullest extent, 
history means an account of past events with the causes which led 
to them, and the consequences to which thev tend. It is thus 
divided into two parts, descriptive and philosophical. It embraces 
chronology , which is a record of dates at which great events have 
transpired; and geography which exhibits the scenes in which thev 
have transpired. 


CHAPTER II. 

MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

1. By the universe is meant the entire material creation. 

2. The heavenly bodies are the stars, planets, comets, meteors;, 
and nebulae. These all appear to be arranged into s\ stems and 
groups, sweeping through unmeasurable space in circuits. 

3. They may be classified into luminous and opaque or non 
luminous bodies. The former shine by their own light, as the sun 
and all other stars commonlv called fixed stars. The latter shine 
by reflected light, as the planets. 

4. The suns or stars are mvriads in number and to the naked 
eye seem to he so near each other as to he almost matted together, 
yet astronomers tell us that the nearest are billions of miles apart. 
Light which travels at a rate of 18^,000 miles a second, requires 
more than three years to pass from the earth to the nearest fixed 
star, while others are so remote that many thousands of years are 
consumed in this swift journev of light, to reach them. The mighty 
depths of space no man has ever fathomed. 

v A planet is a spherical body revolving around the sun and 
receiving light and heat from it. There are two classes of planets— 
primary and secondary. 

6. A both revolving around the sun as a center, is called a 
primary planet. A bodv revolving around a primary planet, is 
called a secondary planet. The earth, which revolves around the 
sun, is called a primarv; the moon, which revolves around the 
earth, is called a secondary. 

7. The secondary planets revolve around the primarv, the pri¬ 
marv with their satellites revolve around the sun, the sun with xill 
the planets and other suns with their attendants are supposed to 
revolve around a central sun, and this system ot central suns, 
around a great central sun, and so on until, perhaps, we reach the 
great throne of God, about which all worlds and systems ot worlds 
perform their cvcles, though vast ages may roll away before one 
such may be completed. 





A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


! 


S. There are about 200 planets, eight of these on account of 
their size are called major or principal planets; the rest minor 
planets. 

9. The principal planets in their order from the sun, are as 
follows:—Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, 
Neptune. I11 order of their sizes they are:—Jupiter, Saturn, Nep¬ 
tune, Uranus, Earth, Venus, Mars, Mercury. 

to. The following tabular statement will lie found serviceable. 
The figures are only approximate so that they may be more easily 
retained the memory. 


Distance from the sun. 

.Diameter in miles,. 

Time of revolution,. 

Time of rotation. 

Inclination of axis.,. 

'Comparative velocit, per hr.. 
“ density,(water be’g 1.) 
“ masses, (earth be'g 1,) 
volumes,(earth be'g 1,) 1 

| MERCURY. 

1 35,000,000 
3,OOC 

88 days 
24 hours 
(unknown) 
s 104,000 

1 -16 
1-20 

VEN us. 
66,000,000 
7,500 
224 E days 
2 3' hours 

75 . 

77,000 

5 v6 

' 7 ■! 
. 8 

.4-51 

EARTH. MARS. 

91,500,000 139,000,000 
8,000 4>3°° 

365 1 4 dai s! 687 days 
24 hours' 24U hours 

23U*"1 ~ 28*4° 

65,000 53,000 

5 hi ' 4 

: 3' 2 5 

it 1-6 


JUPITER. 

SATURN. ! URANUS. 

I NEPTUNE. 

1 )istance from the sun,.... 

476,600,000 

87 

1,000,000 1,7^4,000,000 

I 2,746,000,000 

Diameter in miles,. 


85,000 


70,00c i 

33,000 

37,000 

'Tims of revolution. 

levrsnearlv 

29E years 

84 years 

165 years 

Time of rotation,. 


.10 hours 

io'.j hours! 

9 1 ., hours 

(unknown) 

Inclination; of axis. 


o c 

0 1 


-26 c (unknown) 

(unknown) 

Comparative velocity,pr h. 


28,70c 


21,000 

15,000 

12,000 

“ density,(water be’g 1 ) 


m 


3 ■ 

4 

1 

9-10 

11 masses, (earth 1 ). 


3 G1 


90 

12% 

16 4-5 

“ volumes, (earth 1)... 1 


1,300! 


1,000! 

65 

100 


11. The asteroids between Mars and Jupiter are about 192 in 
number and have an average distance of about 260 millions miles 
from the sun. 

12. The moon is 240,000 miles distant from the earth; diameter 
3,160 miles; time of revolution about the earth 27^ days. This is 
vailed the sidereal month; the synodical lunar month contains 294- 
days. The synodical month is the time from one new moon till 
the next new moon. 

J3- The sun is by far the largest body in the planetary system. 
TIis diameter is nearly no times that of the earth and is* 1,700,coo 
larger in volume. We may form a better idea of the immense size 
<of the sun if we imagine the center of the sun to be where the 
•center of the earth is. He would then extend to the orbit of the 
moon and nearly 200,000 miles beyond. Largeas our sun Is, his 
:size sinks almost into insignificance when compared with some of 
the other mighty fixed stars. Sirius, “the dog star,” if set in the 
place of the sun would appear 125 times as large, and another star 
has been discovered whose diameter is 2004500,000 miles. 


































A MAM AL OF (i KOUIiA l’H V. 


<) 


CHAPTER III. 

1. The orbit ot a planet is the path it describes around the sun. 

2. The earth's orbit is called the ecliptic. 

3- The plane of the ecliptic is an ideal surface, conceived as 
coinciding with the ecliptic. 

4. The form of the earth's orbit is an cl ipse. 

An elipse is a curved line from any point of which, if two straight lines be 
drawn to two points within called the foci, the sum of these lines will always 
be equal. 1 lie long diameter is called the transverse, and the short diameter 
is called the conjugate diameter. The sun occupies one of the foci of the 
earth’s orbit. 

5. V hen the sun is nearest the earth, it is said to be in perihelion ; 
when farthest from the earth, in aphelion. The sun is in perihelion 
about the 1st of January, and is then 3,000,000 miles nearer the 
earth than when in aphelion. Aphelion distance is93,000,000 miles; 
perihelion distance, 90,000.000 miles. 

Aphelion is derived from two Greek words; apo meaning from, and helios 
meaning sun. Perihelion from peri, meaning near, and helios, sun. 

6. The path ot the moon is also an elipse. "When the moon is 
nearest the earth, it is said to be in perigee; when farthest away, 
in apogee. Gee in Greek means earth. 


CHAPTER IV. 

SHAPE OF THE EARTH. 

1. The shape of the earth is that of a globe, ball or sphere. 

2. It is found, however, by calculation that the earth is not a 
perfect sphere; it is flattened at the poles, so as to be twenty-six 
miles more in diameter at the equator than at the poles, and hence 
is called an oblate spheroid. The oblateness of the earth, is said, 
to have been caused by its axillary motion, while in a plastic con¬ 
dition. 

3. A sphere is a body bounded by a curyed surface, all points 
of which are equally distant from a point within called the center. 
Hemisphere is a half sphere. 

4. A spheroid is a body nearly spherical. Spheroid means like 
a sphere. A spheroid flattened at the poles is called an oblate spheroid. 
If lengthened in the direction of the poles, it is called a prolate 
spheroid. 

The axis of a planet is the diameter upon which it revolves. 
The poles are the ends of the axis. 

6. The diameter of a sphere is a straight line passing through 
its center and limited by its surface. The polar diameter of the 







10 


A MAM'AL OF OF.OORAPHY. 


earth is the straight line passing from one pole to the other; its 
length is 7,899 miles. The equatorial diameter is the distance 
through the earth at the equator and measures 7,925 miles (nearly). 
The difference between the polar and equatorial diameters is, there¬ 
fore, about 26 miles. 

It is accordingly about 13 miles farther from the surface to the center of the 
earth at the equator than at the poles ; hence rivers which flow toward the 
equator have their mouths, theroretically speaking, higher than their sources. 
We may then ask; does the Mississippi or any other river flowing toward the 
equator, flow up hill ? We are said to be going up hill when we increase our 
distance from the center of the earth, and as the mouth of the Mississippi is 
more than four miles higher than its source it may rightly be said to flow up 

hill. * 

This strange paradox as you may call it, is explained as follows: The cen¬ 
trifugal force of the earth causes the waters ot the earth to flow toward the 
equator, (as it also caused the earth’s crust to bulge out at the equator) and bv 
this force rivers flowing toward the equator, are made to flow up hill. It is 
true all rivers flow toward the level of the sea, but the sea level is not what it 
would be if the earth did not rotate; it is higher at the equator and lower at 
the poles. Should the earth’s rotation on it$ axis cease, the waters of the 
Gulf would flow back through the channel of the Mississippi northward; the 
regions about the poles would be covered by the sea, while in the equatorial 
regions the bottom of the ocean would appear as dry land. The surface of 
the waters would be everywhere equally distant from the center of the earth. 

7. The circumference of the earth is the distance around it. 
The polar circumference measures 24,865 miles, and equatorial 
circumference 24,899 miles. 

8. In the early ages of the world, mankind supposed the earth 
to be a vast plain terminating on all sides in a shoreless sea or 
region of darkness. This idea prevailed till about 400 years ago, 
when the true form of the earth was ascertained—though some 
philosophers seem to have suspected the globular form of the earth 
at an earlier date. 

9. The spherical form of the earth is proven in many ways: 

(1) Persons have frequently been round the world as a fly is seen 
to creep around an apple. Ships are constantly sailing round the 
earth. 

(2) The circular shape of the horizon everywhere on the earth’s 
surface is a second proof. When you are on top of a high moun¬ 
tain you can see that the land and sea slope away on all sides, as if 
you stood on a vast globe. 

(5) The sea is observed to be globular; for the masts of an ap¬ 
proaching ship are seen first, in the distance, and the hull afterward. 

(4) An eclipse of the moon is produced by the earth coming 
between the sun and moon, and casting its shadow upon the latter. 
This shadow of the earth is observed to be always circular. 





A MANUAL OF i.'EOOHAIMI V. 


If 


(5) AH the other planets are globular, hence we may fairly infer 
that the earth is round. 

(6) By actual measurement it has been found to be that of an 
oblate spheroid. 

(/) 1 be opposite walls ot a building, if built perpendicular, are 
farther apart at the top than at the bottom. 

(S) If the earth were a flat surface, the sun would rise every 
where at the same time, whereas it is known that the farther West 
on any given parallel, the later the sun rises. 

10. The earth is surrounded by a thin transparent element, 
called the air or atmosphere, which exhibits the phenomena of 
rain, snow, clouds, etc. The solid part of the earth is composed 
of matter in many forms — as soil, rocks, Are, vapor, water, veget¬ 
ables, animals, etc. All these are kept together by a principle 
ot attraction called gravitation. The operation of this is easily 
illustrated. 

11. It we throw a stone into the air, it falls to the earth; that 
is, it is drawn back to the earth by attraction of gravitation. It 
is this power or principle which keeps the hills, rocks, houses, 
cities, and seas steadfast on the earth. This principle never fails. 
It operates at all times and in all places, on the whole surface of 
the globe, so that upon whichever side we may be, we are kept 
upon it. Thus it is that every part of the surface of the world is 
habitable by man and animals. 

J 


CHAPTER V. 

MOTIONS OF THE EARTH. 

1. The earth has two principal motions—one, diurnal on its- 
own axis, and the annual around the sun. This double motion 
of the catth also belongs to the other plants, and perhaps to alt 
the heavenly bodies. Day and night proceed from the first motion, 
and the seasons of spring, summer, autumn, and winter, from the 
second. The line on which a wheel turns is called an axis. The 
earth is supposed to have such an axis or line of revolution, the 
ends of which are called the poles. The North end of the earth s 
axis is called the north pole, and the South end of the earth's axis 
is called the south pole. 

2. The earth’s axis is inclined 23^ degrees from a perpendicular 
to the ecliptic; that is, it makes an angle of 66^ degrees with the 
ecliptic. 






12 


A MANU AL OF <:EOG l! AI’l* V. 


3. Rate of motion on the parallels: 


Equator—1037T miles per hour. 

30 degrees—896 miles per hour. 

40 degrees—793 miles per hour. 
c;o degrees—665 miles per hour. 

60 degrees—=517 miles per hour. 

4. The following are the proofs 
the sun. 


70 degrees—354 miles per hour. 
80 degrees—180 miles per hour. 
I 85 degrees— 90 miles per hour. 
90 degrees— o miles per hour. 

that the earth revolves around 


(1) A change of seasons can be explained satisfactorily only on 
the supposition that the earth revolves around the sun. 

(2) Since all the other planets possess this motion it is fair to 
infer that the earth does not constitute an exception. 

(3) The earth is included under Kepler’s third law, which is that 
“the squares of the periodic times of the planets are proportional 
to the cubes o( theii mean distances from the sun.” The periodic 
time is the time it takes a planet to revolve around the sun; 365^ 
days is the periodic time of the earth. 

(4) The phenomena termed aberration of light can only be ex¬ 
plained on this supposition. 


5. The earth is kept in its place in its orbit by the action of two 
powerful forces. The one is called centripetal force or that force 
which tends to draw all bodies to a common center; the other is 
called centrifugal , or that force which causes bodies to fly away 
from the center of revolution. The former is generally known as 
the force of gravity. The joint and continuous action of these two 
forces causes the earth to revolve around the sun as it dees. Destroy 
the contrifugal force and the earth would fall to the sun; destroy 
the centripetal force and the earth would fly off through space, in 
a straight line tangent to its orbit. 

6. Proofs that the earth turns on its axis. 

(1) From the laws of centrifugal force it is impossible lor the 
sun to revolve around the earth, and the only other conclusion is 
that the earth turns on its axis. 

(2) All the other planets, so far as ascertained, rotate on their 
axis, and the inference is that the earth obeys the same law. 

(3) If we drop a stone from a high tower, it will fail to the east 
of a perpendicular line, showing that the earth revolves from 
west to east. 

(4) The diminished weight of bodies at the equator must be 
the result of centrifugal force, caused by the rotation of the earth. 
A body removed from the poles to the equator loses 1-289 of its 
weight. 

(5) The flattening of the earth at the poles is the legitimate re¬ 
side of its rotation. 

(6) The pendulum experiment of Foucault proves the diurnal 
motion of the globe. 





A MANTAL OF O EOO K AIM! V. 


i:? 

7- Each year contains 363 clays, ^ hours, 48 minutes, and 4S 
seconds, but the earth makes one more revolution uii its axis than 
there are days in the year ; so that in 365 days the earth has made 
366 rotations. 


CHAPTER VI. 

TIME. 

1. it is noon at any place when the sun is on tnc meridian of 
that place. 

2. A solar day is the time that elapses from noon one day till 
noon the next day, and is about 24 hours long. 

3. A sidereal day is the interval of time between two successive 
appearances of a star upon a given meridian, and is about 4 min¬ 
utes shorter than a solar day. This difference of time is caused bv 
the revolution of the earth around the sun, and may be explained 
as follows: 

Let tlie hands and face of a watch represent the sun. earth and its orbit 
and axillary motion. At 12 o'clock, the hands are together and if the hour 
hand did not move, 60 minutes would elapse during each revolution of the 
minute hand to bring it again to the hour hand, whereas on account of the mo¬ 
tion ot the hour hand, more than 60 minutes are required to bring them together. 
So it is with the earth in its diurnal and annual motion; more than one exact 
rotation is required to bring the sun from any meridian to-day to the same 
meridian to-morrow. 

4. The sidereal days are all of the same length, but the solar 
days vary a little at different times of the year. 

5. Cause of inequality of solar days. The earth does not move 
at a uniform rate in its orbit, but when near perihilion moves faster 
than at aphelion; this in connection with the eliptical form of the 
orbit and the obliquity of the ecliptic causes the solar days to vary 
a little in length. 

6. Sun fast and sun slow. A good clock is made to keep uni¬ 
form and mean time (called also astronomical time) and, conse¬ 
quently must, at times, be behind the sun, and at other times in 
advance. 

7. The difference between the length of the true solar day and 
the true mean day is called the “equation of timed 

8. When the clock is behind the sun, the sun is said to be fast; 
when the clock is in advance of the sun, the sun is said to be slow. 

9. From December 24th to April i^th the sun is slow. 

From April 13th to June 13th the sun is fast. 

From June 13th to September 1st the sun is slow. 

From September 1 st to December 24th the sun is fust. 

At the above dates solar and mean time agree. 




14 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


10. To find true clock time when sun is slow add “equationto 
find true solar time, if the sun is fast, subtract the equation. 

11. A suicrca/ year is the interval which elapses from the time 
the sun leaves a star until it reaches it again. It measures 365 days, 
6 hours, 9 minutes, and 9 seepnds. 

12. A tropical year is the period which elapses from the time 
the sun leaves the vernal equinox till it reaches it again, and 
measures 363 days, 5 hours, 4S minutes, and 48 seconds. This is 
the common year. 

13. The anomalistic year is the period from the sun’s leaving 
perihelion, till it reaches the same again. It measures 365 days, 
6 hours, 13 minutes, 45.6 seconds. 


CHAPTER VII. 


INSTRUMENTS. 


1. A compass is an instrument used to determine horizontal 
directions in reference to the North and other cardinal points. It 
consists of a magnetized needle made to turn freely on a point, and 
enclosed in a case, containing a card graduated in reference 
to its particular uses. The needle always points to the magnetic 
north. 

2. The north magnetic pole is in latitude 70° north, and longitude 
97 0 west. The south magnetic has not yet been located exactly, 
but is about 7^° south and 1S4 0 east. 

3. North, east, south, and west are called cardinal points. 

4. A mariner s compass has a needle permanently attached to a 
card so that both may move together. The card is divided into 
thirty-two equal parts or points called thumbs. 

5. There are also two other varieties of compasses, viz: Azimuth 
compass and surveyor’s compass. 

6. How to read the points of a compass: 


X., North. 

N. h. E., North bv East. 

N. N. E., North, North-East. 


N. E. b. N., North-East by North. 
N. E.. North-East. 

N. E. b. E., North-East by East. 
From the preceding as examples the pupil will be enabled to 
read the following abbreviations: 

n.w.b.n. 
n.n.w. 


n. 


n.e.b.e. 

e.b.s. 

s.e.b.s. 

s.b.w. 

s.w.b.w. 

vv.b.n. I 

e.n.e. 

e.s.e. 

s.s.e. 

s.s.w. 

w.s.w. 

w.n.w. 

e.b.n. 

s.e.b.e. 

s.b.e. 

| s.w.b.s. 

w.b.s. 

n.w.b.w. 1 

e. 

s.e. 

s. 

1 S.W. 

w. 

n.w. 









A MAM'AL OF OKOOhATHY. 


15 


CHAPTER VIII. 

GLOBES AXI) MAPS. 

1. Globes and maps are the ordinary means of representing the 
earth s surface. A map , (mappa , a napkin, a signal cloth,) is a 
representation of the whole or a part of the earth’s surface. A 
map projection is a method of representing the earth’s surface on a 
plane. 

2. An atlas is a collection of maps illustrating the same subject, 
bound in a volume. 

3- Mercator s projection. A map drawn on Mercator's projec¬ 
tion has all the meridians and parallels straight lines. The regions 
near the poles are much exaggerated from their true form, so that 
maps on this projection are not correct representations of the earth's 
surface, but they show relative positions verv correctlv. Thcv 
were invented by General Mercator, a Flemish geographer, and are 
extensively used by navigators, in which the correct bearings of 
objects are of more importance than the true figures of countries 
They are also used extensively in phvsical maps to show isothermal 
lines, currents of air and water, etc. 

4. The orthographic projection represents the earth's surface as 
it would seem to an observer viewing it at a great distance from 
the earth: the center of the map is delineated in nearlv correct 
proportions, but the sides arc much distorted. 

5. In the stereographic projection , the eye is supposed to be 
placed on the surface of the earth, and the surface to be delineated 
is the opposite hemisphere or a portion of it, the concave surface 
being turned toward the observer. This kind of a map is much 
used in our books on descriptive geography. There are main varie¬ 
ties of the stereographic projection; the following are some of the 
principal: An equatorial projection is one in which the equator 
is taken as the center ; the polar projection is one in which 
the pole is taken as the center of the map ; an oblique pro¬ 
jection is one in which parallels drawn from every point of a fig¬ 
ure meet the plane of piojection obliquely. 

6. The conical projection is used when it is desired to repre¬ 
sent only a small portion of the earth’s surface, as a single 
country or State. 

This method may be understood by supposing a cone of paper 
to be set upon an artificial globe in such a way that the paper 
touches the globe along the central parallel ot the country to be 
shown on the map. The meridians and parallels on each side of 
this central one are then conceived to be brought up to meet the 
cone, and to be projected on it along with the outlines of the land 
between them. When the cone is unfolded it may be spread out 
on a flat surface. In this case the country lying along the central 
line of the map is very accurately represesented, but there is 





16 


A MENTAL OF (iEO(i li A FIT V. 


some distoition along on each side, wliich increases as the area in¬ 
cluded in the map is extended. 

7. The gnomic or central projection represents the surface as 
it would appear to an observer at the center of the earth, sup¬ 
posing the earth to be a hollow sphere and the figures of land 
and^water forms visible. 

S. The globular projection represents the earth’s surface as it 
appears to the eye of an observer at a distance from the earth 
equal to the sine of 45 0 ; the meridians intersect the equator at 
equal distances. J vfj 

9. There is another method of constructing maps in which 
the meridians are arcs of circles cutting the equatorial diameter 
at equal distances, and the parallels are arcs ot circles cutting the 
•polar diameter at equal distances ; they give very good represen¬ 
tations of the'forms and relations of area, and are simple in 
construction. 

10. In all geographical maps, the top of the map is north ; the 
right hand, east ; the bottom, south ; and the left hand, west. 

o 


CHAPTER IX. 

CIRCLES OF THE EARTH. 

1. Circles of the earth are imaginary lines passing around it. 
Semicircles are half circles. A great circle divides the earth into 
two equal parts. A small circle divides the earth into two un¬ 
equal parts, as the parallels. 

(1) The equator is a gieat circle passing east and west around 
the world at an equal distance from the poles. 

(2) Parallels are circles drawn around the world parallel to 
, the’ equator. 

(3) Meridians are semicircles drawn from one pole to the 
other. Meridian circles are circles passing round the world from 
north to south through the poles. 

(4) The ecliptic circle is a great circle passing round the world 
making an angle of 23^° with the equator. 

(5) The arctic circle is a parallel 23^° from the north Dole. 
The antarctic circle is a parallel 23^-° from the south pole. 

(6) The tropics are parallels, and are 23^° on each side of the 
equator ; the one north of the equator is called the tropic of can- . 
cer, and the one south of the equator, the tropic of capricorn. 

2. The tropics are located where they are because they show 
the limit of the sun’s vertical rays north and south of the , 
equator 





A MANUAL OK GEOGRAPHY. 


I 


Tropo from the Greek signifies turning. Cancer ami Capricornus are 
names of two of the signs ot the zodiac, in which the sun was to be seen at the 
times of its limits north and south of the equator. 

3* The zodiac is a belt 8° on each side of the celestial equator, 
in which are the twelve signs of the zodiac; viz.,—Aries, Taurus, 
Gemini, Cancer, Leo, \ irgo, Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius, Capri- 
cornus, Aquarius, Pisces. 

4. I he day circle is the line or circumference of a circle which 
divides light from daikness. One-half of the earth's surface is 
illuminated by the sun at one time; hence this line is a great circle. 
Owing to the earth’s motion from ivest to cast , this line seems to 
move from east to west. 

5. The Sunday line, or International Date line is the line from 
which every date on the earth is reckoned. It passes through 
Behring’s strait, and along the coast of Asia to near Borneo where 
it turns and passes between Borneo and Philipine islands, and thence 
along the northern limits of the East Indian islands, New Guinea, 
and New Zealand. Immediately east of this line it is always one 
day later than immediately west of if. For example :—When it 
is Sunday just cast of this line, it is Monday on the west side. In 
traveling around the world westward we lose a day, and in travel¬ 
ing eastward we gain a day, and the correction is made at the above 
named line to avoid confusion of dates. Navigators are in the 
habit of making the correction in time,at the iSoth meridian from 
Greenwich. 


CHAPTER X. 

L AT I I U D E AN D LO X (i IT U D E. 

i. Latitude is distance from the equator, measured in degrees, 
minutes, and seconds. 

(1) Latitude is measured north and south from the equator 90°. 
Places north of the equator are in north latitude; places south of it 
are in south latitude. 

(2) The degiees of latitude are numbered on the sides of a 

map. 

(3) The length of each degree is 60 geographical miles, or 691- 
common miles. 

A geographical or nautical mile is one-sixtieth of a degree on the 
equator,—about 2025 yards. It is used in measuring distances on the sea. 

(4) The width of a degree of latitude is not the same every¬ 
where ; owing to the flattening ol the earth at the poles, the 
width of a degree increases as we go from the equator toward the 
poles. 





18 


A MANUAL OF (iEOG UAI’Ji V. 


Increase of degrees of latitude in statue miles one decree on the meridians;. 


At equator,. 


At 50 degrees,. 


At 10 degrees. 

.68.721. 

At 60 degrees,.. . .. 

.69.222. t 

At 20 degrees,. 

.68.781. 

At 70 degrees,.. . . . 

.69.314. ; 

At 30 degrees,. 

.68.873. 

At 80 degrees,. 

.69.375. | 

At 40 degrees,....... 


At 90 degrees,. . .*.. 

.69.396.3 


(5) All places situated 011 the same parallel have the same length 
of day. 

2. I^ongitude is the distance, in degrees, east or west of an es-1 
tablished meridian. 

(1) Longitude is measured 1S0 degrees east and west of the 
prime meridian. 210 degrees east longitude amounts to the same 
as 150 degress west longitude. 

(3) Nearly every country reckons longitude from the meridian 
passing through its capital ; thus, the French reckon from Paris 1 
the Germans from Berlin ; the English from Greenwich, near Lon¬ 
don ; the Americans from Washington. 

(3) In most American maps longitude is reckoned from both 
Washington and Greenwich. At the top of the map the degrees 
ot longitude are given from one of the places ; at the bottom, from 
the other place. 

(4) A degree of longitude at the equator measures 69,164 miles! 


At 5 degrees.68.901. 

At 10 degrees.6S.117. 

At 15 degrees. 66.S21. 

At 20 degrees.65.014. 

At 25 degrees.:62.71s. 

At 30 degrees.59.947. 

At 35 degrees.. 56.714. 

At 40 degrees. 53.053. 

At 45 degrees.48.982. 


At 50 degrees. 44 - 545 - 

At 55 degrees.. 39.760. 

At 60 degrees.34.669. 

At 65 degrees.29.310. 

At 70 degrees. ..23.725. 

At 75 degrees. 17.957. 

At 80 degrees.12.049. 

At 85 degrees. 6.04S. 


At 89 degrees. 1.211. 

At 90 degrees.Zero. 

(5) All places on the same meridian have the same time of day. ; 

\6) The distance around the world on any of the parallels may 
be tound by multiplying the length of a degree of longitude on the : 
given parallel by 360. For example:—The length of a degree of 
longitude on the 41st parallel is 52.269 miles ; hence 52.269X360 j 
= 18,816.84, ‘"Niles, the circumference. 

3 * Latitude and longitude are ot use in determining the exact j 
location of places both on land and sea ; the mariner on the wide I 
ocean has no other way of describing his position. Thus, when | 
we say Columbus is situated 40° north latitude and 83° west longi- jj 
tude, we note the place where these two lines intersect to determine j 
the location. 

Longitude is also very useful in measuring time, since the sun j 
seems to pass entirely around the world or over 360°, in 24 hours, 




































A MAXl'AI, OK OEOOR AI’H Y. 


10 


it must pass over 15 0 every hour, and as the sun seems to travel 
westward, time is earlier west and later east. The difference of 
longitude between two places divided by 13, will give the differ¬ 
ence of time in hours. Having given the time of a certain place, 
the time ot a place west is found bv subtracting the difference of 
time from that of the first named place ; if east, bv adding the 
difference of time. 


CHAPTER XI. 


ZONES. 

1. Zone means belt or girdle. 1 

2. The earth is divided into five mathematical , or astronomical 
zones bounded by the tropics and polar circles. 

(1) The torrid or hot zone lies between the northern and south¬ 
ern limits ot the tropics. Some geographers classify the torrid 
into the north and south torrid. 

(2) The two temperate zones lie, one north between the tropic of 
Cancer and Arctic circle, and one south between the tropic of 
Capricorn and the Antarctic circle. 

(3) The two frigid zones lie, one north of the Arctic circle, 
and the other south of the Antarctic circle. 

WIDTH OF ZONES. 

3. The width of each zone in degrees is as follows : Torrid, 
47 0 ; temperate, 43 0 •; frigid, 234° . 

The width of the torrid zone is about 3,2 23 miles ; the temperate zones each 
about 2,97s miles ; the frigid zones each about 1,627 miles. 

3. The width of the zones of any planet, depends on the incli- 
• nation of its axis. 

If the earth’s axis were -inclined but 13 0 instead af 23A 0 , the 
tropics would be 15 0 from the equator, and the polar circles 13 0 
from the poles ; consequently, the north torrid zone would be 
13 0 wide; the temperate zones 6 o° each; the frigid zones 15 0 

each. 

EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE. 

What would be the width of each zone if the earth's axis were 
I inclined 1S 0 , 20° , 25 0 , 30° , 35 0 , 45 0 , 75 0 ? 

v The torrid zone derives its name from the great heat which 
prevails here at all times. 





20 


A MANUAL OF GEOGKAIMIY. 


There is never snow or frost here. The climate, or general character ot 
the weather, is always warm ; and instead of the seasons of spring, summer, 
autumn and winter, there are but two seasons, the wet and the dry. The ’wet 
season is called winter, and the dry season summer. 

6 The vegetation in the tropical regions is generally luxuri¬ 
ant. Fine fruits—such as oranges, lemons, pine-apples, cocoa- j 
nuts, and rich melons—abound ; and often the ripe fruit and the" 
opening blossoms hang side by side on the same tree. There 
are also delicious spices—as cinnamon, pepper, cloves, and nut- | 
me; with other choice productions—such as coffee, sugar, in- 
digo, etc. 

it abounds in the greatest variety of plants and flowers,—the ; 
most profuse and beautiful that the eye can behold ; the air is | 
filled with the sweetest perfumes ; and all nature seems alive in 
clothing the earth with beauty and enchantment. 

7. Though thus favored bv nature, these regions are subject to 
terrific whirlwinds, desolating earthquakes, and deadly fevers ; 
besides they are the abode of millions of tormenting insects and 
poisonous reptiles. Here is also the home of the lion and tiger, 
the giraffe and hippopotamus, the anaconda and crocodile,, the 
rhinoceros and the elephant—the giants and wonders of the ani¬ 
mal kingdom. 

The animals , too, are greater in variety, larger and stronger, and 
more ferocious than those of the other zones. 

The inhabitants of the torrid zone are generally black or ot a 
dark color. They arc, for the most part, indolent, and live in 
slightly-built dwellings. These effects are produced, in a measure, 
bv the excessive heat which makes labor irksome. 

S. At the equator , days and nights are of equal length ; the 
sun rises and sets at points due east and west. 

o. In the temperate zones , the climate is mild; here are the four 
seasons, spring, summer, autumn, and winter; but the seasons of 
the north and south temperate zones are just opposite; while we 
have summer in the north temperate, winter prevails in the south 
temperate, and vice versa. A man’s shadow which falls north in 
the north temperate zone, would fall south in the south temperate 
zone. 

10. The fruits in these zones are grapes, apples, pears, peach¬ 
es, plums, cherries, strawberries, etc. The chief vegetable pro-! 
duction§ are wheat, rye, oats, barley, and maize, or Indian corn ; 
also potatoes, beets, turnips, parsnips, and the like. In the warm 
parts rice and cotton are produced. We see here the ox, horse, 
ass, camel, sheep, goat and hog in a state of domestication ; and 
in the forest, instead of the gigantic rhinoceros and elephant, are 
the wild boar, wolf, buffalo, elk, deer, fox, bear and lynx. 

11. In the temperate zones, the people have, generally, a light 
or white skin. In the northern temperate zone they are charac- 






A MANUAL OF OEOORAPIIV. 


21 


terized by industry, intelligence and energy. Here are the chief 
seats of human improvement and civilization. Here the people 
are generally well clad, and for the most part live in substantial 
and comfortable houses. Here have always existed the most 
powerful and most civilized nations of both ancient and modern 
times. 

12. The northern and southern zones are called frigid, from 
! the intense cold which prevails there for the greater part of the 

year. 

13. The southern frigid zones are little known ; though it appears that 
around the south pole there is either a continent or a group of numerous 
islands. The land here is uninhabited, and always covered with snow and 
ice. The northern frigid zones are better known. 

14. The frigid zones have each but two seasons, a winter of 
nine months and a summer of three. Vegetation is confined to 
mosses, and a few stunted trees, shrubs, and grasses bordering on 
the temperate zones. None but the hardiest animals, such as the 
reindeer, white bear, musk-ox, and a few others, find subsistence 
in these icy regions. Its waters, however, are the home of the 
largest sea-animals; as, the whale, walrus, seal, and the like. 
The inhabitants arc few in number, of low stature and swarthy 
complexion, and find their chief subsistence along the shores of 
the frozen seas, upon seals, whales, and other marine animals. 
The Aurora Borealis, or Northern Light, is seen here in the 
greatest splendor. 

1 v At the north pole the sun remains above the horizon for 
six months, during which time there is constant day, and then 
I during the next six months constant night. This is not strictly 

true ; owing to the elliptical form of the 
earth’s orbit. It takes the earth longer 
to pass from A to B, during which time 
we have summer, than from B to A, dur¬ 
ing which time we have winter. It takes 
the earth nearly eight days longer to de¬ 
scribe the remote half of its orbit than 
the near half. The summer, or the time the sun remains above 
the horizon, is, consequently, about eight days longer than the 
winter. The refraction of the sun’s rays through the atmosphere 
causes the sun to appear above the horizon several weeks earlier 
and to remain several weeks longer above the horizon than it is 
in reality ; this, together with the great length of twilight (about 
one month) relieves the north pole of much of the long dark 
night which would otherwise brood over it. 

16. The summer days increase in length as we go from the 
equator toward the poles. The following table exhibits the length 
of the longest dav in the different latitudes : 








22 


A MANUAL OF GE0<i R AIMrV. 


Equator. 

.12 hours 

10 degrees . 

. 12 -7 “ 

20 degrees . 

. 1 . 3-3 “ 

Tropics. 

T -> - 

30 degrees . 

.I4.0 “ 

35 degrees . 

.H -5 “ 

40 degrees . 

.15.0 “ 

45 degrees. 

.Fvh “ 

50 degrees. 

.16.3 “ 


55 degrees.17.3 hours. 

60 degrees.,.1S.7 

Polar Circles.24 

67'o dedrees. r month. 

6qh> degrees. 2 months. 

73.3 degrees. 3 

7S.3’degrees. 4 

$4. degrees. 5 

North Pole. 6 

hemisphere is il- 
the circle of illu- 
Avhere the parallels 
longer as we go north. 

than 


During the summer more than one-half of the northern 
luminated by the sun, and the farther north the greater is 
mination on the parallels, until we get near the north pole 
are entirely under the sun’s rays, hence the days grow 
During the winter season the opposite is true. 


Again, since during the summer in the northern hemisphere, more 
one-half of each parallel is illuminated, the day is longer than the night. 


17. If, on the 21st of June, we were standing on the Arctic 
circle, we would see the sun tit midnight on the horizon just 
across the north pole ; as the sun on that day shines beyond the 
pole to the Arctic circle. But a little south of the Arctic circle 
the north pole would hide the sun for a short 'time and cause 
it to rise a little east of the north pole and set a little west of 
the same. Further south the region about the north pole would 
form more of an obstruction and so hide the sun for a longer pe¬ 
riod, causing the sun to rise and set farther south. Proceeding in 
this way, we would obseryc the sun rising farther south but still 
north of east until we get to the equator, where it always rises 
due east and sets due west. 


The same explanation will serve to show why, during the summer season, 
the sun .shines into the windows on the north side of a house. 


CHAPTER XII. 


si: ,\ so \s. 



1. A change of seasons is caused by the earth's annual motion 
and by the inclination and constant parallelism of its axis. 

2. The torrid zone has two seasons, a wet and a dry, each six 
months long ; the frigid, two seasons, winter and summer ; and 
the temperate zones each four seasons, spring, summer, autumn, 
























A M ANTAL OK GIOHiAIMlY. 


23 


and winter. llic seasons of the two temperate zones arc the 
same but in an opposite order. 

3 ' (d" ***?? to the elliptical form of the earth s orbit, the sea¬ 

sons are not of the same length. In the north temperate zone, 
spring has 93 days ; summer, 93 days : autumn, 90 days ; and win- 
■ ter, 89 days. 

4. It the earth’s axis were perpendicular there could he no 
change of seasons, no variation in the length of days; the 
sun would always rise due east at 6 o’clock and set at 6‘o’clock. 
Only a small part ot the world could be inhabited, and that in 
the tiopical legions. I he torrid zone would be divided into rain¬ 
less belts and belts on which the rain would fall like a continuous 
deluge. 

5. If the- earth’s axis were parallel to the ecliptic, the sun 
would appear to travel around the earth from north to south 
over the poles. Each pole would have one day and one night 
during the year, each six months long. The sun would cross the 
equator twice in his annual course, and twice would days and nights 
be of equal length. The regions about the equator would have 

| two summers and two winters, each three months long, during 
each year. If this were the case, the world would notlbe habit¬ 
able. I he sun would he absent so long from one part of the 
i earth that everything there would perish of the excessive cold. 
All the strength of the sun would he spent in thawing out the 
world, and ere this would be fully accomplished in one part lie 
would be so far on his course that the earth would again be<dn to 
freeze. 

BENEFITS ARISING FROM THE EARTH S INCLINATION. 

6. Here, as in all of God’s works we can see the infinite wis¬ 
dom of the Creator. If it were possible, the inclination of the 
earth's axis could not he changed w ithout disastrous effects. The 
sun warms one side of the earth at a time and so prepares it for 
the reception of seed, and after having given sufficient time for 
planting and gathering in a bountiful harvest, he, in a measure, 

I withdraws his warm and genial rays to make glad the other 
hemisphere. Nearly the whole earth is thus made a fit abode 
for man. As we contemplate the sun in his majestic course 
through the skies, and behold how he alternately makes glad 
the inhabitants of the northern and southern zones bv his invig¬ 
orating powers, our hearts are made to sw ell with gratitude to¬ 
ward the Author of all things, who giveth us every o-ood and 
perfect gift. 




24 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


CHAPTER XIII. 


POINTS, ETC. 

r. The horizon is a place or point where the earth and sky 
s-eem to meet. 

2. The horizon circle is the entire line which bounds our views 
on the earth’s surface. The latter is called the sensible horizon to 
distinguish from the rational horizon , which is the great circle of 
the celestial sphere parallel to the visible or sensible horizon , and 
which divides the earth into two hemispheres. 

(1) The zenith is a point in the heavens directly over our 
bead. 

(2) The nadir is a point on the opposite side of the heavens. 

3. Antipodes are those who live on the opposite side of the 
world from us. 

4. Antecians are those who live on the opposite latitude but on 
the same meridian. 

5. Periecians are inhabitants of the opposite side of the globe, 
in the same latitude. 

6. A Periscian is an inhabitant within a polar circle, whose 
shadow during some portion of the summer, must, in the course 
of a day, move entitely around and fall towards every point of the 
compass—a term now little used. 

7. Antichthon is one of the inhabitants of an opposite hemi¬ 
sphere. 

8 . East is said to be the point where the sun rises, and west 
where the sun sets. North is in the direction of the north star, and 
south is the opposite point. 

Since the sun in our latitude does not always rise in the same place, it is 
not strictly correct to say that the east is where the sun rises. Twice only 
during the year does the sun rise due east and set due west; namely,—at the 
autumnal and vernal equinoxes. 

Neither would a man travel east or west, if he should travel on one of the 
parallels. If a man should travel due east or west around the globe he would 
be obliged to cross the equator twice, at points 90 degrees east and west of his 
starting place, and reach a point south of the equator equal to the latitude of 
lvis starting point north of the equator. It is to be remembered that the terms 
east and west are not absolute but relative terms, as what was east an hour 
ago is not east now. 

Note.—O n the surface of the earth the east of any place may be consid¬ 
ered as at right angles to the meridian of that place; but as no two persons 
on the same parallel have the same east, corrections must be made between 
the points, a fact familiar to surveyors. 

9. Equinoctial points are points where the sun crosses the 
equator. Equinox means equal nights. 



A MAMAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


10. Vernal equinox occurs the 20th of March ; autumnal equi¬ 
nox on the 22d of September, at which times davs and nights are 
equal. 

11. The solstitial points are the sun’s northern and southern 
limits. Summer solstice occurs on the 21st of June, and winter 
solstice on the 21st of December. 

Solstice is derived from so/, a Latin word meaning sun, and stare , to stand; 
so named because when the sun has reached his limits north and south he 
seems to be stationary for a few days in the heavens. 

12. The altitude ot a heavenly body is its distance, in degrees, 
above the horizon. There are 90° from the horizon to the zenith. 

13. If, at the time of the equinoxes, you were standing on the 
north pole you would see the sun on the horizon, and his altitude 
would be zero ; for every degree you go south, the sun’s altitude 
increases a degree, until you reach the equator when the sun’s alti¬ 
tude is 90° , or is in the zenith. 

14. At the time of the equinoxes, the sun’s altitude, at any place, 
at noon, is equal to the complement of the latitude of that place; 
that is, the difference between the latitude and 90° ; thus, the alti¬ 
tude of the sun at noon, on the 41st parallel at the equinoxes, is 
90° — 41° = 49 0 . Since the sun seems to travel north and south 
from the equator 23^° , his altitude on the 21st of June is 49 0 -f- 
23^° = 72^° ; on the 21st of December, 49 0 — 23V 5 = 2^° . 

15. Tu find the sun’s altitude on any day, at any place, if the sun 
is north of the equator, increase the complement of the latitude of 
the given place by the sun’s distance north of the equator ; if the 
sun is south of the equator, diminish the complement by the sun’s 
distance south. 

16. The distance of the sun north or south of the equator can 
best be obtained by means of a good globe. In the absence of a 
globe, this distance can be obtained approximately by means of a 
little calculation. Take such a part pf 23as the number of days 
since equinox or to equinox, (according as the sun is approaching 
or receding from the solstice) is of the whole number of days from 
equinox, or the solstice. Thus, the time from vernal equinox to 
summer solstice is 93 days, and on the 2Sth of April the sun has 
been north of the equator 39* days; hence, of 23.V 5 is]the distance 
of the suit north of the equator. 




26 


A MANUAL OF O E0< i HA I’ll V. 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY, 


CHAPTER I. 

FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 

The science of the origin or creation of the world or universe, is 
called cosmogony. 

Physical Geography has been defined as a treatise on the earth 
in its natural state. We must introduce our subject by a General 
View of the structure of the earth. The general theory is, that 
the sun was once the nucleus or center of a nebulous mass, revolv¬ 
ing on its axis ; that this became condensed, and that rings were 
thrown off which afterward formed into planets. This theory 
considers the earth to have been first in a gaseous state, similar to 
comets. 

By degrees, its heat was dispersed and radiated into space ; in 
consequence of which the particles became condensed, yet in a 
state of fusion. The process of cooling went on, until the external 
crust of the earth became hardened into the solid materials of 
which we see it composed, yet leaving the central mass in a state 
of incandescence. 

At first, in the process of cooling, the crust of the earth was 
perhaps broken and torn ; thus presenting the rugged aspect the 
telescope now unfolds to view- in the moon. The pent-up fires 
within would seek vent, the volcanoes would disgorge their con¬ 
tents, and the earthquakes would shake and dislocate the land and 
the sea. 

The rain and the tempest now began their work. Particles of 
earth were disengaged from the mountians, and borne by the floods 
to the valleys, and a soil was thus formed for vegetation. 

After many changes, extending through millions of years, that 
sublime revolution which established the present arrangement of 
ocean, and continents, and the present races of animal and veg¬ 
etable life, as described in the opening books of the Bible, was 
effected. 

We have not the space to follow out in detail this wonderful 
history. 


' 







A MANTA L Ol’ <1 EO(J If AIMIN'. 


27 


It must be sufficient to state that we now find the earth con¬ 
sisting of* an exterior crust, composed of layers of rock and soil ot 
different kinds, probably enclosing a mass of melted matter in the 
center. 

These layers or strata are thrown one upon ar.othei in almost 
every possible position. Some of them are horizontal, others ver¬ 
tical, and others inclined at various angles. These beds or strata 
which are found at the greatest depth ‘to which man has been able 
to penetrate are called primary , and are supposed to have been 
first formed. 

Those strata which are found lying upon primary rock, and 
contain the remains of animals and vegetables, are supposed to 
have been formed at a subsequent period,and are called secondary. 

These beds usually found reposing upon the secondary strata, 
composed of the fragments of both primary and secondary rocks, 
are called tertiary , or alluvial formations, and are supposed to be 
of more recent origin.than either of the latter classes. 

This theory does not deny the creation of the world as described 
by Moses; but on the contrary is perfectly consistent with the 
narrative as recorded in the first chapters of Genesis. 

The plan of creation is a glorious subject for contemplation 
everything has shaped itself as it occurred in the mind of the 
Creator from the beginning, and has acted in perfect obedience 
to the laws of the Almighty as laid down at the foundation of the 
woi id. 


CHAPTER II. 

Our Globe, as a zvhole. Comprises three Grand Divisions — Land. 

11 a ter, and Atmosphere. 

DIVISIONS OF THE EARTlfs SURFACE. 

The surface of the earth is divided into land and water ; about 
one-fourth is land and three-fourths water. 

LAND SURFACE. 

(1) A natural division is a division of the earth formed by na- 
rure ; as islands, continents, lakes, mountains, etc. 

(2) A political division is a division of the earth formed by man; 
as Ohio, France, Hardin county, etc. 

(3) A natural boundary is one formed by nature ; as rivers, 
lakes, mountains, and the like. 







A MANl’AL OF GEOGR A 1‘HY. 


>28 


(4) A political boundary is a boundary line between political 
•divisions ; for example :—the line that separates Ohio from In¬ 
diana is a political boundary ; the Ohio river on the south is a 
natural boundary, but the political boundary between Ohio and 
Kentucky is a line passing through near the middle of the 
river. 

(5) The land surface may be classified into two general divis¬ 
ions :—first, as to the horizontal 'projection, called contour forms; 
second, as to its vertical elevation , called relief forms. 


CHAPTER III. 

CONTOUR FORMS. 

1. By the contour of a country is meant its coast. 

2. A coast or shore is the land bordering upon a lake or the 
sea. 

3. A continent is one of the largest natural divisions of land. 
There are three continents; viz.,— the Western, the Eastern, and 
•.the South-Eastern, or Australian continent. 

4. A grand division is one of the principal divisions a of con¬ 
tinent and often contains many countries. The Western contains 
North and South America ; the Eastern continent, Europe, Asia, 
and Africa. 

Recent discoveries have led to the supposition that there is a continent 
ground the south pole, which has received the name of the Antarctic Con¬ 
tinent, 

The islands of the Pacific ocean have received the name of 
Oceanica. 

5. An island is a body of land smaller than a continent and 
entirely surrounded by water. 

(1) Islands are classified into 'continental and oceanic. 

(2) Continental islands ate those lying near or extending along^ 
the coasts of larger bodies of land and seem to be detached por¬ 
tions of the latter. 

(3) Oceanic islands are those lying in the midst of the sea. 

(4) Islands may be further classified as regards their structure 
into volcanic and coral. 

( 5 ) Volcanic islands are those which have been formed by vol¬ 
canoes; as, the Aleutian, and some of the West Indies. 

(6) Coral islands have been formed by the coral insect, a very 
small sea animal. The Great Barrier Reefs and the Bahamas are 
examples. 

6. A peninsula (pene, almost, and insula , an island) is a large 




A MANUAL OS OROKKAPITY. 


2 «.f 

portion of land extending into the sea, and often nearly surrounded 
Joy water. 

7. An isthmus is a narrow neck of land joining two larger 
bodies of land; as, the isthmus of Panama which joins North and 
South America. 

S. A cape is a point of land extending into water. A high and 
rocky cape is called a promontory. The southern point of America* 
is called Cape Horn ; that of Africa, Cape Agulhas. 

9. An archipelago is a cluster of islands in the sea. 


CHAPTER IV. 

RELIEF FORMS. 

1. -V plain is a great extent of land, level or nearly level. 

2. A low plain is less than 1,000 feet above the level of the' 
sea. 

3. A plateau is a plain i,ooo feet or more above the sea-level. 

Although the following varieties of plains— prairie, pampas. Selvas, etc.,— 
are not characterized wholly bv relief, nevertheless it has been thought best 
to describe them here. 

4. A prairie is a large treeless plain covered with grass, 
found in the United States. Prairie is a French word signifying 
meadow. 

5. .V pampas is a plain of this kind in South America. They 
occupv a large part of Argentina, and some of the adjoining 
countries. 

6. Steppes are extensive treeless plains in the south-eastern 
part of Russia, and in Asia. Some of them arc covered with 
grass like the prairies of North America ; others are covered with 
a scanty vegetation and are almost barren. 

7. The IJanos are plains in South America, one-half of the 
year barren, and the remainder of the year covered with rich 
vegetation. 

S. Selvas are extensive plains in the valley of the Amazon, 
covered with trees. 

A savanna is a plain of grass affording pasturage in the rainy 
season; but a few shrubs also grow upon it. It is only the zone 
which makes it to differ from a prairie. 

10. .V heath is a level tract covered with the plant from which* 
the name has been derived. 

11. Deserts are barren tracts of land, usually consisting of sand. 
The Sahara in Africa, nearly three times as large as the Meditcr- 





A .MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


“30 


ranean sea, is more than 2,000 miles long. Travelers in crossing it 
•are sometimes overwhelmed by drifting clouds of sand. 

(1) A fertile spot in the desert is called an oasis. 

(2) Oases are caused by springs in the desert, the water spread¬ 
ing out over the land and fertilizing it. 

12. The tundra are frozen marshes in northern Russia and 
Asia. Swamps and marshes are tracts of land covered for the 
most part, or tilled with water. 

13. A mountain is a great elevation of land 1,000 feet or more 
above the surrounding country; but in measuring their height w r e 
measure from the sea-level. All elevations or depressions are 
measured from this level. 

14. A hill is an elevation not so high as a mountain. 

15* A mountain range or chain is a number of mountains con¬ 
nected at their base and extending in a line. 

16. A mountain system is several parallel ranges trending through 
the same portion ot the countrv. 

17. The trend of a mountain range is the direction in wliich it 
extends. 

The crest of a range is an imaginary line extending along its top. 

18. A mountain cluster is a group of mountains ; as, the White 
mountains of New Hampshire. 

19* A mountain knot is formed where the ranges cross each 
■other. 


20. The axis of a continent is its chief mountain range. The 
Andes are called the axis of South America ; and the Alps, of 
Europe. 

21. The summit of a mountain is its highest point. 

. 33 - Tlie & ase a mountain is the bottom or that upon which it 
is supposed to rest. 

23. The slope is the sides from base to top. 

3 4 - Peaks are the highest points in a range. 

.25. Passes are breaks or depressions in a range. 

-26. A narrow passage is called a gorge. 

27. A valley is the land lying between mountains, or hills. 

28. The principal depressions below the sea level are: 


The Dead Sea,. 

■Caspian and Aral Seas,........ 

Desert in North Africa,. 

Lake Bahr—Assal, Abysinia,. 
Dead Man’s Valley, California 
Holland,. 


1,294 feet. 

. . .84 feet. 
. . 340 feet. 
.570 feet. 
. . 100 feet. 

. . 16 feet. 











A MANUAL OK (iEOtiRAI’HV. 








31 


CHAPTER V. 

GENERAL VIEW OF MOUNTAINS. 

t. Orology treats of the structure and formation of mountains. 

It will, be observed that the principal mountain ranges extend 
m the direction of the length of a continent, island or peninsula. 
The largest range or system laces the largest, or deepest bodv of 
water. Where the 'water pressure seems to be the same on both 
sides, as in the case ol islands or peninsulas, the mountains trend 
through the middle. For example : the Andes of South Amer¬ 
ica face the Pacific ; the Mountains of the Moon, in Africa, face 
the Indian ocean ; the Rocky mountains face the Pacific, and 
the Apalachian, a lower range, face the Atlantic. In the Scan¬ 
dinavian peninsula the Kiolen mountains arc nearer the Atlantic ; 
in the islands Cuba, Madagascar, Java, etc., the ranges trend 
through the middle. 

-• I arions reasons have been assigned for this peculiarity. It 
is doubtless owing to the contraction of the earth, caused by the 
cooling ol the central mass, thus producing folds or upheavals 
and depressions in the crust of the earth. In these depressions 
the waters of the clouds would gather when the earth became cool 
enough to allow the water to rest upon it. The waters filling these 
depressions would rorce^the crust of the earth down by their great 
vveight, and accordingly other portions ol the earth’s surface must 
rise to accommodate the new position. 

Breaks or folds in the earth’s crust would be made near the 
shores and increased in proportion to the downward pressure of 
the sea. Hence, it can easily be seen why mountains should be 
highest near the deepest body of water, and that where the lateral 
pressure is the same on both sides, or on all sides the mountains 
should occupy a central position, as was noted in the case of islands, 
peninsulas, etc. 

Large land areas have successions of folds produced in this wav, 
with the highest in the middle, thus making mountain systems. 

3. The process of mountain making has not been confined to 
ages long ago; but even, at present, the same forces, are at work. 
The Aleutian islands are of recent formation, some of which have 
been formed within the memory of man. Mt.JorulIo in south-wes¬ 
tern Mexico, was thrown up during the year 1759 to a height of 
3,000 feet; and this, too, in one of the most beautiful and fertile 
plains of the country. 


GRADUAL ELEVATIONS AND SUBSIDENCES. 

4. Besides the great and sudden changes made by the internal 
forces, others take place slowly .but constantly, by which large 




32 


A MANUAL OF UEOUKAPHY. 


portions of the earth's surface are raised or lowered. The Scandi¬ 
navian Peninsula is slowly rising in the north and sinking in the 
south. Southern Greenland is sinking. The North American 
coast from Labrador to New Jersey is rising. Holland is sinking. 
The range of the Andes especially near Chili is rising. The central 
portion of the Pacific ocean, covering an area of 6,000 square miles, 
is slowly sinking. 

UTILITY OF MOUNTAINS. 

5. “Mountains form a most important part of the mechanism of 
of the world and show special adaptation and design.” 

(1) The highest mountains are found in the equatorial regions 
where thev, by the different temperatures of their sides, furnish 
a varied vegetation and increase the area ot land. Mountains are 
the natural refrigerators of the world ; the cold currents of the 
upper regions meeting with the warm currents in the valleys, 
cause rains ; by them rains are distributed more evenly than with¬ 
out them, and many a fertile region now teeming with vegetation 
would be destined to hopeless barrenness should they be leveled 
down. 

(2) They contain the vast supplies of minerals which have con¬ 
tributed so largely to the progress and civilization of the world ; 
they form natural boundaries between countries, and in their 
fastnesses have been bulwarks of defense and an asylum of liberty 
in all ages of the w r orld. 

(3) Nor must we forget to mention how much they add to the 
beauty of, our earth in breaking the dull monotony of an other 
wise uniformly level expanse. By them rivers are made to leap 
into existence, which bear on their bosoms the treasures of the 
world, and which, by the exchange of products of different lands, 
give employment, comfort, and happiness to busy millions of the 
earth’s inhabitants. 

While in a few instances they produce barren wastes, yet they 
make glad a thousand places, by their beneficent uses, and we could 
ill afford to do without them. 

Remove the mountains and you destroy much of the eaith’s 
fertility, use, and beauty. Here, as in all God's works, we see 
the goodness and wisdom of the Creator manifest, and 0111 hearts 
goes out toward Him in gratitude and praise for his wonderful 
works. 


CHAPTER VI. 


VOLCANOES. 

i. A volcano is a mountain which does, or has at some time cast 
out fire, smoke, melted lava, etc., from its interior. 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


a;? 

2. A volcano which has ceased to burn is said to be extinct; 
a burning volcano is said to be active. 

3. The upper part is cone shaped bv the ejected matter and*, 
forms a hollow or bowl-shaped cavity called the crater. The most 
remarkable crater is found in the volcano of Kilauea in Hawaii. 
It is seven and one-half miles in circumference, three long, and 
one broad, and sinks more than 1,000 feet below the level of the: 
plain. 


VOLCANIC FORCE. 

4. The tremendous force of volcanoes as displayed bv their 
energy is truly remarkable; huge stones are thrown to a height 
of 2000 and 3000 leet, and Cotopaxi has been known to hurl rocks 
of immense size many miles. Whole continents are lifted up and 
the entire topography of countries has been changed ; fields and 
forests have been thrown out of their positions by this mighty 
force. 

NUMBER OF VOLCANOES. 

5. There are above 400 volcanoes in the world of which more 
than 175 are in America. According to Johnston, 207 are more 
or less active. 

ARRANGEMENT AND POSITIONS OF VOLCANOES. 

6. As to their arrangement, volcanoes are classed into two* 
systems, central and linear. 

(2) Central volcanoes consist of a number of small cones- 
grouped around a larger cone which is the seat of eruptions. 
Examples of this class are found in Iceland and in the Canary- 
islands. 

(3) Linear , as their name indicates, are arranged in lines at 
various intervals. Examples of the latter are found in the immense 
chains of mountains bordering on the Pacific ocean. 

(4) It is found, too, that by far the greatest number of volcanoes- 
is found in or on the borders of the ocean, of which the Pacific 
has the largest share. 

It is thought that the waters of the sea find their way into the 
interior of the earth and by being converted into steam, produce 
an immense energy which finds vent in the mountains near the 
coast, as it is here where the crust of the earth was first broken in 
the formation of mountain ranges. 

7. Again, bv far the greatest nunibei of volcanoes is found in 
the equatorial regions. The reason given , is that the eaith began 




m 


A MANUAL OF GEOG KAPKY. 


to cool at the poles and accordingly the crust of the earth is thinner, 
near the equator. Hence it force were exerted from the interior 
the crust would be more likely to break wheie it is thinnest. In 
the second place, the centrifugal force is greatest at the equator 
and diminishes toward the poles. This would assist in fracturing 
the earth about the equator and lead a way of escape to the internal 
fires of the earth. 

THEORY OF VOLCANOES. 

8 . Many theories on the cause of volcanoes have been presen t- 
•ed ; but the most generally accepted theory is, that the earth’s 
interior is a molten mass, and that this fluid is likely to be disturbed 
by the expansive force of vapors and gases, or the accumulation 
of electric matter directed in currents along the strata of the earth’s 
surface or crust. This accumulates until the earth’s crust is no 
longer able to restrain its force when fissures and openings 
through tne crust take place, causing all the commotions already 
described. Volcanoes are sometimes termed the safety-valves of 
the earth , and when by any means they become clogged or stopped, 
,all the dire results of an earthquake must follow. 


CHAPTER VII. 

\ 

EARTHQUAKES. 

1. Earthquakes are quakings or commotions of the solid crust 
’-of the earth, more or less extended. 

2. These movements are of three kinds, viz :— vertical , horizon¬ 
tal and rotary . 

(1) The vertical is an upward movement, often throwing objects 
to a great distance. 

(2) The horizontal, according to Brocklesby, is of a two-fold 
character, tremulous and undulatorythe first consists of tremblings 
or tremors of the earth, and the second of .wavelike tpotions and 
are very destructive. It consists in a rising and falling like the 
waves of the sea. 

(3) The rotary motion consists in twisting objects around 
without overthrowing them, and is fearful in its effects. The cities 
of Calabria in Italy and Valparaiso in Chili, suffered severely by 
this kind of movement;—the former in 1818 ; the latter in 1783. 

3. Uses of earthquakes. 

(1) Fire and water are two powerful opposing elements. The 
tendency of the latter is to reduce every thing to a dreary level ; 
the former to break the monotony of the earth’s surface by causing 
variations of elevation. Wisely these two forces are constantly at 
work, according to a harmonious law. 




A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


35 


(2) Volcanic force lias made mountains, hills, plains and valleys 
while water has reduced the rocks to soil and strewn it over the 
surface, thus making the earth’s surface fit for the growth of plants 
and for the abode of man and animals. 

( 3 ) ^ ast treasures of mineral wealth otherwise inaccessible have 
been brought to the surface by this powerful volcanic force. ’ 


CHAPTER VIII. 

WATER DIVISIONS. 

1. Water is composed of two invisible gases ;—oxygen and 
hydrogen; in weight eight parts of the former and one part of the 
latter ; in volume one part of the former and two parts of the latter. 

2. The water of the earth is divided into three divisions ; viz, 
land, oceanic , and atmospheric. If all the waters of the sea were 
evenly distributed over the earth they would cover it to a depth of 
10,000 feet. 

3. A careless observation might lead us to think that there is a 
great waste in this extent of oceans, and that the earth would have 
been better arranged with three-fourths land and one-fourth water. 
But it is not so ; our rains come mainly from the sea, and under 
the present arrangement, there is no more rain on an average than 
is needed. Increase the area of land and more rain will be needed 
to fertilize it, and there will be less water area to supply the mois¬ 
ture. To increase the land area could bring nothing but disastrous 
effects, and a very large percent, of the land would become desert 
from the lack of sufficient moisture. 


CHAPTER IX. 

OCEANIC SYSTEM. 

1. An ocean is the largest natural division of water. There 
are five great oceans; viz,, the Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Arctic, and 
Antartic. The Pacific is the largest—having an area of about 65,- 
000,000 square miles. The area of the others is as follows: At¬ 
lantic, 35,000,000; Indian, 30,000,00 ; Artie, 6,000,000 ; Antartic, 
4.500,000. 

2. A sea is a large body of salt water smaller than an ocean ; 
there are two classes of seas. 

( 1 ) Inland seas are those nearly or entirely surrounded by land ; 
as the Red sea, and Caspian sea. 





36 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


(2) Border seas are those cut off from the ocean by peninsulas- 
or islands ; as the Arabian and Caribbean seas. 

3. A gulf or bay is a body of water extending into the land. 

4. A road-stead is a part of the open sea, near the shore, where 
vessels may ride at anchor in safety. 

5. A harbor is a sheltered bay or inlet, where vessels may 
anchor or come to land. Other small inlets are coves , havens , and 

fiords. 

6 . A sound is a body of water so shallow that its depth can be 
measured by an ordinary sounding line. 

7. A strait is a narrow passage of water joining two larger 
bodies of water. A channel is a wide strait: 

8. A bayou is a stream derived from a lake or a river. In 
Louisiana, the Mississippi and Red Rivers in the flat regions, 
send off many such branches to the sea. This term is also applied 
to tidal channels on the shores of the sea, and is peculiar to the 
Gulf States. 


SALTNESS, OF THE SEA. 

9. The water of the ocean is salt. This is caused by rivers 
carrying salt in solution into the sea. No water escapes from the. 
sea except by evaporation; and as only the fresh water evaporates, 
the salt remains, and in course of time the salt has accumulated. 

10. The freshest water in our springs and rivers contains a 
small quantity of salt, and although in the earlier ages of the earth’s 
development these waters must have been much more salt than 
now, yet it must have taken many thousands of years to dissolve 
the salt of the earth and carry it into the sea. About 2.7 per cent, 
or 27 thousandths of sea water is salt; six-tenths magnesia and 
one-tenth lime. Salt lakes were formed in the same way. 

It is not strictly true that no salt escapes by the evaporation of sea-water. 
It is however but a very small per cent, which passes off with the rising vapors. 
The rains which fall on the islands of the mid ocean contain sufficient salt, so 
that the inhabitants need not feed their cattle salt as do the inhabitants on 
continents far inland. 

11. The quantity ofisalt in the sea is simply enormous. Esti¬ 
mating the average depth of the sea at 2J miles, the salt if 
abstracted from the sea would cover all North America to a depth 
of more than 1 mile. It is estimated that there are 200,000 tons ot 
silver in the sea, besides vast quantities of other minerals. 

12. The benefits arising from the saltness of the sea arejmportant 

(1) The saltness of the waters together with their constant 

agitation, prevents the sea from becoming corrupt. 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


37 


(2) Salt water is heavier than fresh and not so easily tossed 
about by winds. Vessels are thus enabled to carry heavier bur 
dens. 

( 3 ) Tlie sea freezes at a temperature of 26' degrees Fah. while 
jesh water freezes at 32 degrees. Hence, the sea is less icebound 

than otherwise. 

(4) According to Maury, the salts of the sea are amon°- the 
chief agents in producing ocean currents. 

I 3 * The bottom of the sea \s like the land, consisting of hills 
mountains, valleys, plateaus, etc. Geologists tell us much of the 
bottom of the sea was formerly dry land, such as continents, 
islands, etc ; that the present continents seem to have been 
successively dry land and the beds of oceans until the crust of the 
earth took its more stable and permanent place, as it now appeals. 


CHAPTER X. 

DEPTH OF THE OCEANS. ETC. 

1. 1 he depth of the ocean is various. The Indian ocean is 
generally considered the deepest. A depth of nearly nine miles, 
is said to have been reached in the north-eastern part by Captain 
Ringgold. 

O O 

2. The average depth of the Pacific has been computed to be 
about 12,000 or 13,000 feet, taken from the velocity of the tide 
wave. 

3. The average depth of the Atlantic is about 2^- miles. The 
Telegraphic Plateau extends from Newfoundland to Ireland ; 
the depth of the Atlantic here ranges from 10,000 to 1^.000 feet. 
Upon this oceanic plateau the first Atlantic cable was laid. The 
greatest depth of the Atlantic which can be given with any degree 
of accuicy is 2^,000 feet. 

All Geographers agree that the three great oceans increase in 
depth toward the south. 

Little is known of the depth of the Artie and Antartic. 

4. The color oj the ocean is a deep, rich blue, but in shallow 
waters it has a greenish tinge. However, the color changes much 
with the changes of the sky. The color of the sea is said to be due 
mainly to its saltness. Fresh water has a greenish tinge, while 
salt water is blue in proportion to the salt it contains. If very salty 
it has a redish hue. 





38 


i 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 

In many places the sea assumes different hues owing to the 
admixture of foreign matter, as in the case of the Red Sea, so 
named from the color ot its waters due to coloring matter of 
vegetable origin. A small quantity of the water of tne sea seems 
colorless. 

6. The temperature of the ocean changes with its depth until 
a constant temperature of about 39 degrees Fah. is reached. At 
the oceanic equator this is reached at a depth of 7,200 feet ; at 
70° south latitude 39 0 Fah. is reached 4,200 feet below the surface ; 
and in about 56° south latitude, the constant temperature exists at 
the surface. 

7. 7 ^he oceanic equator is the line of greatest heat in the waters 
of the sea. Its highest temperature in 28° north latitude, is about 
89 degrees. In the Indian ocean it is about 87 degrees. 

8. The phosphorescent light , seen in many waters, is caused by 
small marine animals which have the power of emitting light like 
the glow-worm or fire-fly. 


CHAPTER XI. 

MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH. 

1. The three great movements of the ocean are tides, waves and 
currents. 

2. Tides are the regular risings and fallings of the ocean 
caused by the unequal attractions of sun and moon. 

(1) Plow tide is the tide coming in. 

(2) Ebb tide is the tide going out. 

(3) It is high tide when the waters have reached their highest 

point. & 

(4) It is low tide when the waters have reached their lowest 
point. 

(5) When the sun and moon act in conjunction, that is when 
they are on the same side of the earth or on opposite sides, the 
tides are higher than at any other time and are called spring tides. 
These tides occur at every new or full moon. 

(6) When the sun and moon are in opposition, that is when one 
of them is in the horizon and the other in the zenith or nadir, tides 
are lower than at any other time and are called neap tides. These 
tides occur at first and last quarters of the moon. 





A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


39 


TIME OF TIDES. 

I 

3 - 1 He difference of time between two high tides or between 

two. low tides is about 12 hours and 26b minutes. The difference 
ot time between two successive springtides is one half of a lunar 
month or a little more than 15^- days. 

HEIGHT OF TIDES. 


4. The sun s attractive force upon the earth's waters is to the 
moon s attractive force as 2 to 5, so that when they act together 
the waters will rise 7 units, but when they act in opposition the 
tide will rise but ^ — 2 = ^ units. 

(2) In the middle of the great ocean the tide wave is about 
teet. U11 lakes tides are scarcely perceptible, as they are 

such comparatively small bodies that all parts are attracted nearly 
equally. 

( 3 ) When the tide wave rushes up bays having wide mouths 
the waters are so much crowded together that they sometimes 
rise to an enormous height by the time they reach the narrow part 
ot the bays at their head. 


3 i 


Such is the case in the bay <ff Fundy where the tide 
teet, within the British channel at ^Ialo, in France, the 
to an altitude of 50 feet. 


s rise from 70 to 8a 
tide frequently rises- 


VELOCITY AND DIRECTION OF TIDE 


W AYES. 


5* ■‘^1 the cquatoi the' tide waves move with a velocity of 1 000 

miles per hour, but diminish toward the poles. 

If the cuith v e 1 e coveied to a uniform depth with water the 
tide wave would move due west, and if there were no friction, or 
inertia, it would keep directly under the moon. 

But owing to the obstructions caused by the land and by the 
irregularities in the bed of the ocean, tides are deflected out of 
their normal course and made to flow in all directions. In the 
Atlantic ocean the tide wave moves nearly north on the coast of 
North America, and to* the northeast near Europe. 

6. Cotidal lines arc lines drawn upon maps showing what 
places have high tides at the same time. 


7. A lunar tide is a tide produced by the moon only. 

A solar tide is a tide produced by the sun independent of the 
moon. 




40 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


WHY WE HAVE HIGH TIDES ON THE OPPOSITE SIDES OF THE GLOBE. 

8. It is perhaps not yet well understood why high tides should 
occur at opposite points at the same time. 



E represents the earth and M the moon. 


The solid part and waters on any portion of the earth are 
•equally attracted ; but the solid part will not move, whereas the 
particles of water are free to move about each other. C being 
directly under the moon will be more attracted than A and B ; 
hence, the waters will be drawn away from these two points and 
filled up around C : again, C being nearer the moon than D, will 
be more attracted than D ; for the moon’s force diminishes as 
the distance increases. The waters about D, therefore, will be 
left to a certain extent free to act in Accordance with the law of 
liquids when left free ; (viz., to assume a globular form) and will 
in consequence pile up around D to a height equal to that at C. 
The diminished attraction at D is equal to the increased attraction 
at C. 

9. The origin of the great tide waves is not far from the south¬ 
western shore of South America. 

10. Derivative tides are the tides perceptible in the rivers and 
seas connected with the ocean, inasmuch as they are portions of the 
great oceanic tide waves. When a tide enters suddenly the mouth 
of a river abounding in shoals and obstructions, the flow of the 
waters is called a bore. 


These tides are well known in the Amazon, 
rivers. 


Severn and Ganges 

o 


CHAPTER XII. 

WAVES. 

i. W aves are the alternate risings and fallings of the waters 
of seas, lakes, etc., caused by winds. Waves, unlike tides do not 



a manual of geography. 


41 


affect the waters of the sea to the bottom ; but the disturbance 
extends only along the surface to limited depths. 

2, The highest waves occur off the cape of Good Hope during 
a north eastern gale when the waves sometimes rise forty feet 
above the general level of the ocean. The general height of waves 
is about 6 feet. 

3 - The crest ot the wave is the top; the trough is the depression 
between two successive waves. 

4. The distance between two successive crests varies from 10 to 
20 times their hei ght. 

Thus waves 4 feet high have their crests 40 feet apart. "Waves 
33 feet high, about 500 feet apart. 

5. The velocity of waves varies with the breadth of the wave 
and depth of water. 

A wave 100 feet broad and in water ioo feet deep moves about 
15 niiles per hour. A wave 10,000 feet broad and in water 10,000 
feet deep moves 1^4 miles per hour. 

6. The force of the highest waves against the rocks along the 

o O O 

shore is 6,coo pounds to the square foot. Such a tremendous force 
we can not comprehend with our limited powers of mind. 

7• When the waves roll toward the shallow places so that the 
bottom of the wave strikes the solid earth, the to]) of the wave 
pitches forward and forms breakers ; and where they extend through 
a long line of shore, take the name surf. After the storm has 
subsided the billows continue to roll, and arc projected far from 
the scene of the storm. This is called a ground swell. 


* 

CHAPTER XII. 


OCEAN CURRENTS. 

i. Ocean currents are vast streams of water flowing through 

o O 

the ocean. 


ORIGIN. 


2. Their origin is attributed to the rotation of the earth ; to the 
difference in the densities of the waters of the equatorial and polar 
regions ; to the immense avaporation at the equator ; to tides, 
winds, melting of polar ice and the like. 






42 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPH Y. 


3. There are three classes of currents :— constant , periodical 
and local. 

4. Local currents are produced by tides driven through narrow 
and tortuous channels, as in the Maelstrom of Norway and Roost 
of Sumburgh, at the southern promontory of the Shetland islands. 

5. Currents produced by constant and prevailing winds, are 
called drift-currents. 

6. A counter current is one that flows in an opposite direction 
to the main current. 

7. Ocean currents are also classified with respect to their posi- 
tion, as marine and submarine ,—the former flowing at the surface 
and the latter under the surface. 

• GULF STREAM. 

4. The most remarkable and most important of all currents is 
the Gulf Stream. It is a continuation of the Atlantic equatorial 
current which originates near the equator and flows west from ' 
Africa towards America. Passing along the northern shore of 
South America and into the Gulf of Mexico through Yucatan 
channel, sweeping in a curve forced by the shape of the coasts of 
Mexico and the United States, it is finally driven through the 
narrows of Florida Strait where it receives so great an impetus 
that its waters are at once quickened into a velocity of five miles | 

an hour, and here receives the name Gulf Stream. 

/ \ I 

(1) The velocity diminishes as the stream flows onward until it 
reaches a velocity in the northern Atlantic of only two miles per ' 
hour. 

(2) Its color is a dark indigo and is so distinctly marked that | 
the line of separation from the other waters is clearly traced. 

(3) Its 'width at the point where it emerges from Florida Strait I 

is less than 50 miles, and in its course grows broader and more 
shallow until in the far north its breadth is more than 1,00a 1 
miles. I 

(4) Near the southern shore of Newfoundland it is divided by j 
the Grand Bank, and one branch turns to the southeast flowing 
across the ocean returns to the equator, having made a complete 
circuit. 

(5) Its temperature near the coast of Florida at the surface is j 
86° , that is 9 0 higher than the surrounding ocean, and in io° of I 
latitude loses but 2 0 Fah. 

(6) Western Europe owes nearly all it is and ever has been to J 
this remarkable stream. The climate is raised by its genial J 
warmth, io° above that of America in the same latitude. If it j 

I 










A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


4£ 

j were possible to change the course of the Gulf Stream, the British 
Isles would become ice-blocked and as barren and unfruitful as 
Labrador. \ essels sailing on the bosom of its genial waters always 
enjoy a summer temperature. 


(7) Its influence on the climate of the United States is scarcely 
perceptible, since the winds blow chiefly from the west; and 
then again, a cold Arctic current flows between the United States 
and the Gulf Stream. For many miles it is at the bottom of the 
Gult Stream and actually forms the bed on which the latter 
flows. The meeting of the waters of the latter with those of the 
j Aictic curicnts ncai Newfoundland, produces those dense fogs ex¬ 
perienced there. 


I . 5 * The Japan current flowing along the eastern coast of Asia, 
! is a stream very similar to the Gulf Stream. Its velocity varies 
from 35 to 80 miles per day, being greatest at Yeddo. The tenv- 
perature is about 12 0 above that of the surrounding sea. 


6. The North Pacific Drift Current , the southern branch of 
the Japan current, skirts the western shores of North America, 
and by its warmth softens the rigors of this clime. At length it 
bends to the west and merges into the Pacific Equatorial. 


We have neither time nor space to give a detailed account of all or of even 
the most important currents, together with all the disturbing causes relative 
to their directions and velocity*. It will be observed that the land and irreeu- 
Unities in the floor of the ocean cause deflections in their courses as in the 
case of tides. The subject becomes an extremely intricate one and entirely 
too vast for a work purely a school geography. 


BENEFITS OF OCEAN CURRENTS. 

7. We will conclude bv adding a few of the benefits derived 
from ocean currents. 

First—The constant agitation of the waters produced by tides, 
waves, and currents, prevents the waters from becoming corrupt; 
otherwise the sea would become a stagnant, fetid expanse, breed¬ 
ing disease and pestilence. 

Second—Ocean streams assist in navigation ; a vessel sailing 
in the direction of the stream will add the velocity of the stream 
to the ship’s velocity; thus, quickening the speed and shortening 
the time of the voyage. 

Third—They distribute the heat and cold of the globe. The 
warm currents carry the surplus heat of the equator to the north 
mitigating the excessive cold of the polar climes, while the Arctic, 
currents bring their refreshing coolness to the feverish tropics.. 
The whole tendency is to equalize the heat of the earth. 







44 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


Fourth—Ocean currents have been instrumental in clothing I 
distant isles with a luxurious vegetation, carrying the germs and| 
seeds, and even man, entrusted to them by nature’s God, and 
scattering them to the uttermost parts of the earth. 

Nothing which the eye can behold on this earthly sphere shows! 
the goodness and wisdom of the Almighty more than the great? 
oceanic currents. It has all been done tor the comfort and happi-j 
ness of man. Even the sea is made to yield to man’s necessities, j 
and under laws given and enforced by "divine power it keeps the) 
earth pure and healthful, and makes it a pleasant place in which to^ 
live. 

“Thanks be unto God for his unspeakable gifts.’ 7 

8. Sargossas are vast areas encircled by ocean currents and 
covered with sea-weed, sometimes so densely matted as to hide the 
water. The Atlantic Sargossa lies between 20° and 65° west! 
longitude, and between 18 0 and 28° north latitude. 


CHAPTER NIV. 

LAND SYSTEMS OF WATER. 

1. A lake is a body of water surrounded by land, but smaller^ 
than a sea. 


2. Lakes are both salt and fresh. Lake Superior is the largest? 
fresh water lake ; and the Great Salt Lake, of Utah, is the largest 
body of salt water which is really a lake. 

3. There are •four classes of lakes. 

Fiist—Those which have both inlets and outlets. Visible 
inlets and outlets are meant, as all lakes have inlets and outlets, butj 
not necessarily visible. 

Second—Those which have outlets but no inlets. Both 
these are fresh water lakes. 

1 


The great lakes of North America are examples of the first-class, and! 1 
lake Sirikol, the highest lake in the world and source of the Amoo river situ¬ 
ated on Pamir Plateau, is an example of the second-class. 


4. Lakes of the third class are those having 
outlets. 


inlets but not: 

(1 








A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


5. Lakes of the fourth class are those having neither inlets nor 

outlets. 

The numerous lakes of the Great Interior Basin are examples of the third 

• class, and lake Tulza is an example of the fourth-class. It is situated in Asia 
Minor in the Taurus mountains, and is about 30 miles long and L mile wide. 
Lakes of this class as well as those of the second-class are fed bv melting 
snows of mountains and submarine springs. 

6. Uses of lakes. 

(2) It is a noteworthy fact that comparatively few lakes exist 
within the tropics ; blit they become numerous near the poles, where 

* they serve the double purpose of mitigating the rigor of the 
climate and affording valuable fish, as food. 

(2) They are also vast reservoirs of the surplus waters ot melting 
snow, etc., and so prevent distastrous floods. 

' (3) Lastly—the beauty and charm which they add to the earth 
must not be overlooked in searching out the:r uses. 


CHAPTER XV. 

RIVERS. 

1. A river is a stream of water flowing in a channel to the sea, 
a lake, or another river. 

2. A branch or tributary (also called affluent ) is a stream flowing 
into another river. The course ot a river is the geneial dilection 
in which it flows. 

3. Small streams are called brooks , creeks , rivulets , etc. 

4. A. river system is a river with all its tributaries. 

‘i 3. A river basin is the entire area drained by a river system. 

6. The velocity of a river depends upon the form ot its channel, 
its volume, and the inclination of its bed. 

7. The source of a river is where it rises ; its mouth , where it 
empties into the sea, or any other body ol water. Banks are the 

sides of the river, 

5. As you go down a river the bank on your right is called the 
right bank ; the other, the left bank. 

9. The bed of a river is the bottom, or that over which the water 
flows. The channel is made up of bed and banks. 






A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


46 

io. A delta is the land enclosed between the mouths of a river. 
It is so called from the shape of the Greek letter delta (a)* 

DELTAS, HOW FORMED. 

(2) Where a river flows through an alluvial region, much soil is 
washed away and carried by the river to its mouth where it settles 
to the bottom, forming shoals, islands, and the like. »So long as the 
waters continue to flow, the soil is carried in solution ; but on 
nearing the ocean where there is little fall, the waters become slug¬ 
gish, and the sediment is strewn along the bottom ; in this way many 
river beds become elevated so much that banks or levees must be 
built to keep the waters in the channel. 

The surface of the Mississippi river, is already much above the j 
level of the surrounding country in the lower part of its course. 

The surface of the river Po near its mouth, is higher than the 
‘tops of many houses. Sometimes these rivers break through their 
banks and do much damage to the surrounding country. 

In the spring of 1874 the levees of the Mississippi gave wav, when thirty- 
one parishes of Louisiana were submerged, and great loss of life and property 
followed. 

• 

(3) All rivers have not deltas ; for when one river empties into 
another the motion of the waters is kept up and there is no deposit 
of sediment. Ocean currents flowing by the mouths of rivers, 
take up their waters and distribute the soil over the bottom of the 
ocean. The incoming and outgoing tides also take away much of 
the drift carried down to the sea. 

AREAS OF DELTAS. 

(4) The delta of the Nile contains over 9,000 square miles, and 
the deltas of the Mississippi measure about 14,000 square miles. 
The latter is said to carry sediment to its mouth sufficient to cover 
-one square mile each year, 26S feet deep. 

it. Usually the surface of a river is but a few feet below the 
level of the surrounding country ; but in a number of instances the 
rivers have narrow, deep channels many hundreds of feet in depth 
—these are called canons. 

The canon of the Colorada, of Arizona, is the most remarkable 
in the world. The surface of its waters is from 2,000 to 6,000 
feet below the level of the country. 

12. A water shed is the elevation or ridge of land seperating 
two river basins. 

From this point streams flow in different directions. L 







A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


47 


13. Sometimes two river systems so run into each other that a 
natural communication of water exists between them. A stream 
joining two such river systems is called a continuous river . 

The Casiquiare river, of South America, joining the Orinoco 
and Rio Negro rivers, is a familiar example. 

14. That part of a river which passes rapidly over rocky ob¬ 
structions is called rapids. 

A fall of one foot or more, in the course ot two hundred , feet, 
produces rapids. 

Where the body of a river pitches over a precipice, it is called 
a cataract , fall or cascade. 


CATARACTS. 

15. Cataracts are found in all quarters of the globe, and are 
everywhere regarded as phenomena of rare beauty and sublimity. 
Some are noted for their height, others for their volume of water ; 
but they are most interesting where both these characteiristics are 
combined. 

CAUSE OR FORMATION. 

(2) In the channels of rivers some rocks are harder than others 
the softer ones will wear away most rapidly, thus forming the 
head of 'water-falls, and as the falls become higher the erosive 
power of the water increases. This continues until stopped by some 
harder obstruction below. 

16. A firth or estuary is the open, or wide mouth ol a river af¬ 
fected by the rising and falling tides. 

17. K canal \s an artificial ditch filled with water, for the pass¬ 
age of boats. 

18. All the rivers draining one slope of the country and flowing 
into the same body of water, is called a drainage system. 


CHAPTER XVI. 

SPRINGS. 

T. A spring is water issuing spontaneously from the earth, and 
may be divided into numerous classes. 

ORIGIN. 

2. The waters on the surface of the earth soak through the 
soil until they reach an impervious stratum ; they run along on 





48 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY". 


this till they emerge at some lower level where the stratum crops 
out. 

(2) The waters gathering in subterranean caverns, or reservoirs 
ma} be forced through openings to the surface of the earth, by 
-compressed gas or highly heated steam, or by the pressure of 
some connected body of water. 

3. The solid part of the earth beneath the surface, is ramified 
by numerous streams of water, flowing in all directions, like the 
arteries and veins of the human body. If any of these streams 
should come in contact with any heated portion of the earth’s 
crust, much of the water is converted into steam, and bv its expan¬ 
sive force drives the waters through its channels with much violence, 
so that vast columns of water are sometimes thrown many feet 
above the surface of the earth, and are called geysers. Where 
this phenomenon is manifest rn a less degree, warm or thermal 
springs result. 

If the temperature is not above 6o° it is called a cold spring. 

4. Constant springs flow continually with little or no diminu¬ 
tion of flow during droughts. Periodic springs flow during one 
season of the year and are dry the rest of the year. If the spring 
has its origin in a subteranean reservoir whose outlet is a siphon, 
the spring becomes periodic , the ebb and flow of its waters occur-, 
ing at regular intervals. 

6. In many parts of the earth, the crust contains mineral sub¬ 
stances which are dissolved by the waters passing through its 
various strata , and when these waters appear on the surface they 
are called mineral springs. 

(1) Calcareous springs are those containing lime. 

(2) Silicious springs are those containing silica, 

(3) Sulphur springs are those containing sulphuretted hydro¬ 
gen, and the like. 

(4) Acidulous springs are those containing large quantities of 
carbonic acid. 

(5) Petroleum springs are those containing rock or coal-oil. In 
this way springs are named from the minerals with which their 
waters are impregnated. 

(6) Artesian wells , so called from, Artesia , a district of France, 
where the first well of this kind was sunk, are made by artificial 
borings through the crust of the earth until a reservoir of water i& 
reached whose source is higher than the surface at the point of 
boring. 


A M ANTAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


4!i 

The water is made to rise through the opening to the surface of 
the earth and is often thrown in a continuous jet with considerable 
force. 


CHAPTER XVII. 

METEOROLOGY. 

1. Meteorology is a description of the atmosphere and its phe^- 
nomena. 

2. Atmosphere, tlie third grand division of the globe, is the- 
elastic gaseous substance which envelops the earth to a height 
of about 50 miles. 

3. The air becomes less dense as the distance from the earth 
increases. At the sea-level the pressure is about 15 pounds to the 
square inch. The barometer falls one inch in 1,000 feet, in the 
first 10,000 feet ot ascent ; and | of an inch per thousand feet 
during the next 10,000 feet. 

4. The air is composed of two invisible gases ; viz .,—nitrogen 
and oxygen ,—in volume about 79 parts of the former to 21 parts of 
the latter. 

Wind is air in motion. 

VELOCITY OF WINDS. 

5. The following table partly from Smeaton will be found useful: 


Velocity of wind in Force of winds to the square Common names 
miles per hour, foot, in avoirdupois pounds. of winds. 



I 





Hardly perceptible breeze. 


4 

to 

5 

.08 to 

• I2 3 

Gentle wind. 


10 

to 

15 

.492 to 

1.1 

Pleasant, biisk gale. 


20 

to 

2 S 

1.96 to 

3°7 

Very brisk. 


3 ° 

to 

35 

4.42 to 

6.02 

High wind. 


40 



7.S7 


Very high. 


5 ° 



12 -3 


Storm. 


bo 



1 7*7 1 


Great storm. 


So 



3 M 9 ' 


Hurricane. 


100 



49.2 


Violent Hurricane. 


6. When the winds have a rotary as well as a progressive mo¬ 
tion, they are called whirl-winds , or tornadoes. 

A cyclone differs from the preceding onlv’in its larger area. 


A MANUAL OF GEOGKAl’KY. 


50 


7. Cyclones are the m i dreaded of all storms, but tornadoes 
are nearly as destructive as cyclones. When a hurricane occurs 
on the water, it causes a 'water-spout. 

CAUSE OF WINDS. 

8. When any portion of the earth becomes heated more than 
the‘adjoining-districts, the air over the heated arjea expands, and 
the cooler air being heavier comes in to push the heated air up, 
which in turn flows back over the cooler regions. 

(1) Winds are turned out of their courses by opposing moun¬ 
tains, and lesser elevations, also by conflicting currents of air. 

(2) If the earth’s surface were perfectly flat the winds from the 
equator, owing to the rotation of the earth, would take north¬ 
easterly and south-easterly courses ; and the winds from the polar 
regions would blow south-west from the north and north-west 
from the south pole. 

Explanation —The equator has a velocity of about 1000 miles per hour, 
and the velocity of any spot diminishes as we go north or south of the equator 
until we reach the poles where the rotary velocity is zero. 

The atmosphere at the equator has a velocity of the equator, and in going 
north the winds are continually coming into regions having a less velocity 
than themselves ; and hence, since the air moves faster east than the earth, 
the winds are .made to take a course between north and east, or north-east. 
In like manner the winds from the equator moving south, take a south-easterly 
course. 

(3) If the earth did not rotate on its axis, the warm winds from 
the equator would blow due north and south ; also the winds from 
the polar regions would blow due south from the north pole, and 
due north from the south pole. 

The winds coming from the polar regions are continually coming into 
regions having a greater velocity eastward than themselves, and hence are 
made to lag behind ; that is, the earth slips through under them giving them 
a relatively westerly direction. Suppose the winds blow east 20 miles per 
hour, and you are riding on a railway train moving 30 miles per hour in the 
same direction, the winds will seem to blow west at the rate of 10 miles' per 
hour. The earth may be represented by the train, and the velocity of the train 
being greater than the winds causes the winds to seem to blow west; so the 
velocity of the solid part of the earth being greater than the encumbent ait- 
makes the winds to blow westerly. 0 

The subject of winds is a very complicated one when followed out in de¬ 
tail; and as .we give a detailed account of each country where .winds are treated 
more fully in connection with these countries, we shall make only a general 
statement here ot the subject. We will be content here in defining, or describ¬ 
ing a few well known winds. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 

CLASSIFICATION OF WINDS. 






Winds may be classified as follows. 


Winds 


f i. 
1 


Constant—Trade winds. 

f i. Monsoons. 

| 2. vSea breezes. 
Periodical 3. Etesian. 

| 4. Northers. 

( 5. Harmattan. 
f 1. Simoons, 
j 2. Sirocco. 

\ ariable 3. Pamperas. 

| 4. Mistral. 

( 5. Bora. 


1. 7 rade winds are formed within the tropics and blow in one 

direction (westerly) throughout the year. 

(1) They are so called because they assist in navigation ; a Yes- 
el on the sea can have its speed quickened by getting into a trade 
wind blowing in the same direction. 


(2) The north-cast trades lie beweon the 30th and Stir degrees 
north latitude, and the south-east trades lie between the 3rd north 
latitude and 2Sth south latitude. 


(3) Their velocities are from 10 to 20 miles an hour. Between 
these two trades lie the zone of calms , caused by the vast volumes 
ot heated air continually rising. T he air is mostly in dead repose. 

(4) About the tropics there are tw o other calm belts caused by 
the equatorial winds descending and meeting the polar winds. The 
calms of the tropic of Cancer, are called Horse Latitudes , from 
the fact that formerly vessels loaded with horses for the West 
Indies, were often delayed in these calms and the sailors were 
obliged to throw overboard a part of their cargo to save the rest 
from the want of food and water. 


PERIODICAL WINDS. 

2. Periodical winds are those which occur at regular intervals 
of time and continue fora definite season. 

(1) .Monsoons are winds which blow one-half year in one direc¬ 
tion and during the remaining half, in the opposite direction. 
From October to April the north-west monsoon ©revails in the 
southern hemisphere, and the north-east, in the northern. From 
April to October they blow in opposite directions. 




A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


(2) Land breezes are winds from the land blowing over the 
sea ; sea breezes are winds from the sea blowing over the land. 

During the day the land becomes much more heated than the water 
and, because of the hotair over the land rising, a breeze sets in from 
the sea, usually about 9 o'clock in the morning, and continues 
until sunset. Since the water is a poor conductor of heat, the 
land cools much more rapidly than the water so that early in the 
evening the land has become cooler than the sea, when the warm¬ 
er air or the sea is crowded out by the cooler breeze from the 
land. 

Between these winds there is a season of calm. 

(3) Etesian winds are north-east winds experienced in some 
countries on the Mediterranean ; they blow for nearly six weeks. 

(4) The northers are the cold boisterous winds blowing over 
the plains of Mexico and Texas from October to March ; but 
seldom continuing for more than four or five days at a time. 

(5) The Harmattan is found in Guinea and Senegambia, and 
blows from December to March, in four different intervals ot 
about 1^ days each. It is an exceedingly hot and dry wind, and 
the sky is so hazed that the sun appears like a ball ot fire. 

VARIABLE WINDS. 

3. North and south of the trades are the zones of variable 
winds ; that is, as the name indicates, winds which blow in any 
direction. 

(1) Simoons are the hot parching winds from the desert of 
Sahara. 

(2) The sirocco is a south-east wind which occurs in Sicily and 
Italy during the summer. They come from the Great Desert over 
the Mediterranean, are humid and hot, and exceedingly oppress¬ 
ive. 

(3) The pamperas are the cold north west winds from the Andes 
which sweep over the dry pampas of South America. So great 
is their violence that often great clouds ot dust are raised which 
produce a darkness like night, and the water of the La Platta rolls 
in billows like the sea. 

(4) The mistral is a cold north-west wind sweeping down 
from the mountains in Central France over its south'-eastern 
regions. 

(5) The Bora is a coid north-east wind from the Alps, 

USES OF WINDS. 

1st—They purify the atmosphere. 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


53 


2nd — I hey distribute the heat and cold over the earth, else many 
parts would become intolerable because of the excessive heat and 

cold. 

3rd—They distribute the rains. 

4*h—They carry seeds to distant countries and islands, and 
thus have been the means ot clothing many portions of the earth 
with a rich garb of vegetation. 

5ch—They assist in navigation by driving ships across seas and 
other large bodies of water. 

I t has been beautifully said : “By their aid the rich products of 
different climes are interchanged, mankind are bound together by 
social and commercial ties, and religion and civilization are extend¬ 
ed to the remotest regions of the earth.”— Brocklesby. 

'6th—It is tine that sometimes winds in the way of storms do a 
great deal of damage ; but they bring so many blessings and so 
many comforts that we could ill afford to do without them. We are 
glad to suffer slight damages occasionally, if we may only enjoy the 
thousands of benefits they confer. 


CHAPTER XIX. 

TEMPERATURE. 

1. The temperature ot any thing is the amount of heat it pos¬ 
sesses, and is measured by an instrument called a thermometer.. 

2. The mean daily temperature is found by taking the tempera¬ 
ture of each hour and dividing this-sum by'24. The mean yearly 
temperature is found by taking the daily temperatures for a year 
and dividing their sum by 36^. 

3. The climate of a place is the conditions of the atmosphere 
as to winds, moisture and temperature ; or in other words, climate 
is the ve cat her conditions of a country. 

4. The climate of a place depends upon its latitude, altitude, 
proximity to the sea, position and direction of mountain ranges,direc¬ 
tion of prevailing winds, ocean currents, cultivation of the soil, etc. 

For every 330 feet in ascent there is an average diminution of 
io° in temperature. 

(1) The astronomical climate of a place is the climate resulting 
from conditions depending on its latitude. 

(2) The astronomical climate modified by other conditions, is 
called physical climate. 





54 


A MANUAL OF GEOG K A PI1Y. 


(3) A continental climate is characterized by great extremes and 
sudden changes of temperatnre, and prevails in large' land areas ; 
as. in the interior of Asia, North America, etc. 

(4) An oceanic climate is the opposite of the preceding; there is 
great uniformity in daily temperature and but comparatively little 
difference between the summer and winter temperatures. It pre¬ 
vails on islands and along the coasts of continents. 

5. Climatic circles are lines connecting places having the same 
average temperature. 

(1) Isothermal lines connect places having the same average 
annual temperature. 

(2) IsQcheimal lines connect places having the same average 
winter temperature, 

(3) Isothercl lines connect places having the same average 
summer temperature. 

6. From the preceding it will be observed that climate does 
not vary as latitude varies, owing to other modifying conditions. 
It is frequently the case that north ot a chain of mountains the 
climate is warmer than immediately south of it. 

7. The hottest part of the globe surrounds the Red Sea, whose 
mean annual temperature is 90° Fah. The coldest places are in 
north-eastern Siberia, and Melville Island of North America. 
The latier has a mean temperature of 3 0 below zero. The former 
i° above zero. 

S. The climate ot the north Temperate zone is warmer than 
the south Temperate, owing to a greater amount of land in the 
North ; for the same reason the isothermal equator , or line of 
greatest heat lies north of the equator. 

9. The hottest time of the year is not when the longest day occurs, 
but about the latter part of July and first of August. 

While the days are longer than the nights, the earth receives more heat 
during the day than it loses during the night; there is then an accumulation 
of heat which does not cease (in our latitude) until about the middle of August. 
From this time the earth radiates more heat during the night than it receives 
during the day and continues to grow colder until about the middle or latter 
part of February. 

10. The hottest time of day is not at noon, but from one to two 
o’clock P. M. It is warmer at nine o’clock P. M. than at three A. 
M., because the earth having become heated during the dav 
continues to lose heat during the night. 

So long as the earth receives heat faster than it radiates it, it continues to 
grow warmer. 


A M ANV All OF GEOGRAPHY. 55 

11. The climate grows colder as we go from the equator toward 

the poles, 

(i) The sun’s rays must pass 
through a greater thickness of at¬ 
mosphere near the poles than at 
the equator. About 2S per cent, 
of the sun’s heat is lost in passing 
perpendicularly through the at¬ 
mosphere, and, of course, much 
more will be lost in passing through the atmosphere nearer the 
poles. 

(2) Owing to the round shape of the earth fewer rays fall on 
any given area near the poles than at the equator ; hence, less 
heat. 

(3) North and south of the equator the sun’s ravs strike the 
earth obliquely, and since the angle of reflection is equal to the 
angle of incidence, the rays glance oft'again into space depriving 
the earth of much heat which it would otherwise receive : where¬ 
as, in the equatorial regions, where the rays of the sun fall per¬ 
pendicularly they ai*£ reflected back into the atmosphere in the 
same line, and so help much in this way to heat these regions. 

12. Climatic zones or physical zones are divisions of the earth’s 
surface bounded by isothermal lines. There are five of these zones. 
The torrid lies between the isothermals 70° north and 7°° south. 
The temperate zonCs lie between the ioxthermals 70° and 32 0 . The 
frigid zones lies the one north, and the other south of the isother¬ 
mals 32 0 . 



aaa —The earth’s atmosphere. bbb — 
The sun's ravs. 


CHAPTER XX. 

MOISTURE OF TIIE ATMOSPHERE. 

r. The atmosphere always contains some moisture in an invis¬ 
ible statfe. A vessel of water exposed to the air soon evaporates 
and its waters are held bv the air. 

2. The air expands as its heat increases, and its capacity for 
moisture increases with its heat. When, at any given tempera¬ 
ture, the air has all the moisture it can hold in an invisible state, 
jt is said to be saturated. This is also called the cfezv point. When¬ 
ever saturated air is made cooler, dews, fogs, mists and rains 
result. 

3. The quantity of moisture necessary to saturate the air varies 
with the temperature. Cold air requires much less moisture to 
saturate it than warm air. Warm air when not saturated may be 
brought to the dew point by cooling. 



A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


Of) 


4. J)cw is the moisture which gathers upon vegetation and 
an any other objects during the clear summer nights. 

(1) During the day the earth and superincumbent air become 
heated by the sun’s rays ; but during the evening and night the 
■earth loses its heat so rapidly by radiation, that it soon reduces the 
temperature of the air resting upon it, to the dew point and below 
it. When the temperature of the atmosphere is brought below 
the dew point, it can no longer hold all its moisture and a portion 
gathers on the objects with which it is in contact. 

(.2) A cloud} night is not favorable for the deposition of dew, 
sis the clouds arrest the radiation of heat which is necessary to 
bring the temperature below the dew point. 

(3) No dew is found on the under side of leaves for thev receive 
the heat radiated from the earth. 

(4) Hie most copious dews fall not during a very calm night, 
but when the air stirs slightly. The same air resting upon an 
object would soon be drained of its surplus moisture. 

(5) dew falls on very .vvindv nights. 

(b) In the tropics during their cloudless nights, the dew is so 
copious that it resembles gentle rains, and the water is made to 
run in streams. 


5. Whenever the temperature of a large mass of air is reduced 
he low the dew point the moisture begins to collect in minute 
drops, which become visible; it is called fog if it rest or floats 
upon the surface of the earth ; if it floats in the higher regions of 
the atmosphere it is called clouds. 

6. The following are the principal varieties of clouds. 

(1) Ihe cirrus is a feathery, fleecy cloud which floats in the 
regions of perpetual frost. It is supposed to be composed entire¬ 
ly of snow-flakes. 

(2) The cumuli are the heavy massive clouds, which look like 
sno wy mountains. They are the prevailing clouds of our summer 
<tays and are formed by uprising heated currents of air. Their 
base marks the height wiiere the dew-point is reached. 

(3) Ihe stratus is a winter cloud, though also common at other 
■seasons, and is generally low. It is arranged in long horizontal 
bands, and is formed low in the atmosphere. 

(4) The nimbus is the rain-cloud. It is noted for its raoo- e d 
^utl'ne^at first .t ,s of a dark leaden color gradually changing 

(5) There are also other varieties of clouds, mixtures of the 
Ifrrtus'!*’ SUCh aS 1,6 Clrr °- Cumulus , cirro-stratus, ajul cumulus- 

toaLrtbx d ,S.ef Cl0lK,SVnr!CS ’ 0n *» "-erase, from 13°° feet 


A MAN! Ah OK O KOUR.VI’I! V. 


57 


USES OF CLOUDS. 

The use of the nimbus or rain-dond is apparent : but it may be 
asked of what use are clouds that do not bring rain. 

ist.—They protect the earth from too much heat in summer and 
from excessive cold in winter. During the summer they cut off the 
burning rays of the sun. and in winter they act as a covering to 
the earth, and thus prevent the too rapid radiation of hear. 

2nd.—If you will watch the fleecy clouds during the summer 
days, you will observe that clouds are formed in one part of the 
sky and melt away in another, reform and dissolve again. In all 
these changes heat is given off, or absorbed. When a cloud is 
dissipated by the heat of the sun, heat is abstracted from the sur¬ 
rounding air, and a cooler current descends toward the earth ; and 
when a cloud is forming in another part of the heavens, heat is 
set free and the air rises. 

In this way vertical currents of air are produced and the tem¬ 
perature equalized. 

3rd.—In searching out the uses of clouds, the beauty which 
they add to the sky must not be overlooked. 

The constantly varying changes of the sky fills our minds with 
thoughts of the beautiful. A sky forever without clouds would 
certainly become monotonous. The exquisitely beautiful colors 
of clouds at sunrise and sunset, have always been objects of pro¬ 
found interest and admiration tu all persons. 

When the temperature of saturated air is reduced very rapidly 
rain falls from the clouds. Very small drops of water by a slower 
cooling, forms mist. 

Perhaps, cooling and compressure by other bodies of air cause rains, much 
as water is pressed out of a sponge. It is possible that scientists have not vet 
arrived at the true cause of rains. 

AMOUNT OF RAIN-FALL. 

7. It is estimated that the annual rain-fall in the torrid zone 
is 8.5 feet, in the temperate zone 3.03 feet, and in the frigid zone 
1.25 feet. This amount would cover the earth, on an average, to a 
depth of about five feet, and would make a lake 24,000 miles long, 
3,000 miles wide, and 16 feet deep. 

The greatest annual rain-fall occurs at the southern base of the 
Himalaya mountains in India ; about 600 inches. 

At San Luis de Maranhao 2S0 inches fall annually. 

Amount of annual rain-fall in the Old World, 77 inches. 

Amount of annual rain-fall in the New World,'115 inches. 

Amount of annual rain-fall in the United States, 39 inches. 




53 


A MANUAL OF OEOGKAIMIY. 


Amount of annual rain-fall in Europe, between 36° and 6o° , is 
34 inches. 

8. If the dew in forming should freeze, it is called frost. 

If, in the process of rain-formation in the upper regions, the 
drops should freeze into many sided crystals or flakes and thus 
fall to the earth, we call it snow. The small drops of frozen water 
pop out into snow flakes, like the popping of corn. 

9. The snow tine is the height where snow ceases to melt. 
The tops of very high mountains are always covered with snow. 
The snow line is about 16,000 feet above the sea-level at the equator 
and slopes north and south toward the poles, where it reaches the 
surface of the earth. In our latitude it reaches a height of 10,000 ft. 

10. Hail is produced when there is great difference of tempera¬ 
ture between lower and upper strata of air. 

The cause of hail is perhaps not vet fully understood ; several theories 
have been advanced to account tor these wonderful occurrences. If vou ex¬ 
amine a hail-stone vou will find it composed of concentric layers similar to 
those ol an onion, arranged around a central nucleus of ice or snow, generally 
the latter. The rotary theory, which is the most generally accepted explains 
this as follows : The wind is supposed to rotate in a cyclone, only the axis is 
horizontal to the surface of the earth. Two currents of air—one cold, and 
the other warm and humid, the warm stratum being below—meet and produce 
this rotary motion. A snow-flake being formed is carried dov n into the 
moist, wArm air where it receives a layer ol' moisture and then back into the 
cold when it is frozen. This process alternates in cold and in warm moist 
air until layer after layer being added, it becomes too heavy to be held or 
carried by the rotating air, and is then thrown to the earth. 

11. Glaciers arc immense masses of ice and snow which move 
slowly down the valleys and gorges of mountains. The upper 
part is formed of soft snow, the lower part of clear ice. 

It is formed by the freezing and thawing of snow. Its motion is pro¬ 
duced by the immense weight of snow and ice in its upper course and by 
the alternate thawing and freezing. In the polar regions these glaciers 
shove out irom land into the ocean, and under their excessive weight break 
oft, plunge into the water, float in the ocean, and then are called icebergs. 

12. An avalanche is a great mass of snow sliding down the 
mountain side, often carrying ruin and devastation in its course 
It is sometimes called the thunderbolt of snow. 


CHAPTER XXI. 

OPTICAL AND LUMINOUS PHENOMENA 


I. 


VIZ., 


I he rain-bow is an arch composed of seven prismatic colors ; 
red, orange, yellow, green, blue, idigo, and violet. The 



A MANUAL OF G KOCi It AIM IY. 


rain-bow is to be seen only when the rain is falling and the sun 
is shining. 

It is formed bv the rays of tlie sun passing through the drops of water, 
when they are dissolved into their prismatic colors. Each color is reflected at 
a different angle, hence the arch of the rain-how and its distinct colors. 

2. Twilight is the faint light seen after sunset and before 
sunrise. The former is called the evening twilight and the latter 
the dawn. 

CAUSE OF TWILIGHT. 

(i ) The cause of twilight is the reflection of the sun's ravs bv the 
atmosphere. The same power of reflection possessed by the at¬ 
mosphere causes it to be light in our recitation rooms, on the shadv 
side of the house, and on cloudy days. 

Remarks —If the atmosphere did not possess the property of reflection,, 
day would come upon us like a flash of lightning and would leave us as 
instantly ; our own shadows would be in our wav, for we could not see through 
them. Every spot where the direct rays of the sun did not reach would he 
dark as the deepest dungeon ; every shadow would he a dark partition through 
which we could not see. Our eyes could not endure the sudden changes 
forced upon them. In fact the earth woidd he almost anything but agreeable. 
We see here, as everywhere, design wrought out in the mind of the Infinite, 
and that the allwise and ever kind Creator has done everything for our comfort 
and happiness. In grateful homage due Him. let us praise Him for His excel¬ 
lent works. 

3. Mirage is a name giyen to that optical phenomenon by 
which objects are seen above and below their true position. It is 
common on the Sahara. 

4. The Aurora Tor eat is is a luminous phenomenon of electric 
origin, seen in the northern skies. In Iceland and other northern 
countries it is an object of rare beauty. 

v St. Elmo's Eire is the pale light, sometimes attended by 
hissing noises, seen at the tips of objects during a highly electrified 
condition of the atmosphere. 

6. Eight fling is a discharge of atmospheric electricity, accom¬ 
panied bv a vivid flash of light. 

7. 'Thunder is the noise made by the electricity in passing 
through the air. The lightning-flash in passing through the air 
produces a sudden and powerful displacement of the particles of 
air, and the collapse is said to give the report called thunder. 


CHAPTER XXII. 

THE IH It EE KINGDOMS OF NATURE. 

1. The unorganized portion of the earth belongs to the mineral 



A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


60 

kingdom. This furnishes sustenance to vegetables, and vegetables 
are the chief nutriment of animals. 

2. Among the mineral treasures of the earth, coal is the most 
important. Next to that a^e the various metals , iron, lead, tin, 
copper, zinc, nickel, gold and silver. The last two are called 
precious metals in distinction from the others which are called the 
useful metals. 

3. There arc four principal classes of minerals :—the metallic, 
the inflammable, precious stones, and building stones. We have 
named the metallic. 

The most important inflammable minerals are coal, sulphur, 
bitumen, asphaltum. / 

The most important precious stones are, diamonds, sapphires, 
rubies, emeralds, topaz, etc. 

Some of the principal building stones are granite, limestone* 
marble, and sandstone. 


VEGETATION. 

4. The empire of vegetation embraces the whole globe from 
pole to pole, and from the summit of mountains, where the lichen 
creeps over the hardest rocks, to the bottom of the ocean, where 
floating fields of plants rise unseen. Cold and heat, light and shade, 
fertile land and pathless desert—every place, every temperature, 
has its own kind of vegetation, which thrives and prospers there. 
There are plants which ramify upon the dark vaults of mines, and 
upon the walls of deepest caverns. 

(1) Among the most important vegetables are grains which 
furnish bread ; cotton, which furnishes clothing ; sugar tea, coffee, 
and spices, which supply 11s with luxuries. Ships, as well as a 
large part of our houses and furniture, are built of vegetable 
materials. Directly or indirectly, all animal life depends upon 
vegetable products. 


ANIMALS. 


V The animal kingdom presents a vast and varied field. Every 
department of nature—the earth, air, and sea,—is full of animated 
beings ; some of them seeming nearly allied to vegetables and 
minerals. From these we may ascend in the scale through an al¬ 
most infinite series of existences, up to man, who constitutes the 
highest in the animal kingdom. 


A MANIA L OF O KOOK A PHY. 


()1 


CHAPTER XXIII. 

MAX. 

1. The various races of men may be reduced to jive principal 
races , or types . These all differ from each other in color, form, and 
feature. 

2. Phe distinction of the different races is, probably, owing to 
difference of climate, food, manner of living, and, no doubt, to 
causes we do not fully understand. 

3. The five varieties of the race aie the Caucasian , the Mon¬ 
golian , the Africa?i , the Malay , and the American. 

4. The Caucasians so called because Illumenbach's best speci¬ 
men skull was obtained near the Caucasus mountains ; it is also 
called Indo-European , from its diffusion from India over Europe. 

(1) Physical Characteristics : —The Caucasian race is distin¬ 
guished for a white skin varying to swarthy, a ruddy complexion^, 
soft flowing hair, oval face, narrow nose, small mouth, and for 
round and well proportioned limbs. He is the tallest of the five 
races of men. and has always been foremost in intelligence, the 
arts, and in all the intellectual pursuits. The principal nations of 
ancient and modern times have been of this race. 

(2) The principal nations embraced under this class are the 
Europeans and their American descendants, the Arabs, Moors, 
Turks, Hindoos and Abysinnians. \\ hole number about 
600,000,000. 

5. The Mongolian race includes all the nations in Asia east ot 
* the Ganges, excepting Malacca. It embraces, also, the Laplanders 

and Fins in Europe, and the Esquimaux of America, from Behring s 
strait to Greenland. 

(1) It is distinguished for a yellow skin, thin, coarse and 
straight hair, broad and flat face, square head, low forehead, high 
cheek bones, small and obliquely set eyes, thick lips and scanty* 

beard. 

(2) On the whole the Mongolians are inferior to the white race 
in intellectual endowments and are lower in stature, and feebler ot 
.body than the other races. They are ingenious and inventive in 
detail, but lack the ability to generalize. They number about 
590,000.000. 

6. The third race is the African or Negro , which is spread 
over all Western and Southern Africa. It is found also upon 
the coasts of Madagascar, and occupies New Guinea, New Cale¬ 
donia, and includes the natives of Australia, and the negroes of* 
America. 

( 1) The physical characteristics are black skin, black wooly hair,, 
low forehead, high cheek bones, thick lips, broad flat nose, project— 
ing jaws, and curved shin. 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


()'2 


(2) They have thus far evinced less mental activity and intel¬ 
lectual capacity than the preceding races, though a few have risen 
to a considerable eminence. In their native state they are indolent, 
and sluggish in their natures, and brutal in their manners. Their 
number is about 185,000,000. 

7. The .Malay race possesses many of the features of the first 
two mentioned races : a high and round head, brown color, hair 
black and straight, short and robust in stature, the men being on 
an average five feet two inches in height, broad face and high 
cheek bones. 

(1) This race inhabits Malay Peninsula, the East India Islands, 
Polynesia and New Zealand. It numbers nearly 55,000,000. 

8. The American race consists of aboriginal inhabitants of 
America, and is distinguished for its reddish or copper color, high 
cheek bones, erect form, coarse, straight and black hair, small, 
black and deep set eyes, aquiline nose, low and retreating fore¬ 
head. 

(1) The American Indians are savage and revengeful in their 
dispositions, fond of war and hunting. They are capable of noble 
and generous feelings, but are cruel and revengeful toward their 
enemies, and exhibit a wonderful endurance of pain and suffering, 
d hey are rapidly disappearing as the white man, with his superior 
intelligence, encroaches upon their domain. They number, per-* 
haps, 11,000,000 souls. 


CHAPTER XXIV. 

THE CAUCASIAN RACE. 

1. This raceds divided into three great branches,—the Hamit ic, 
Scmetic , and Japhetic , or Aryan. 

2. The Hamit ic, also called the North A frican branch , includes 
the Fellahs of Egypt, the Berbers of North Africa, and some of 
the inhabitants of Soudan. The people of this branch have mostly 
disappeared or have become blended with the Scmetic and Japhetic 
so as scarcely to be distinguished. 

3 - The Scmetic branch includes the Jews, Arabs, and Syrians. 
Ihe former are scattered through every country of the globe, as 
has been prophesied of them. 

4. The Japhetic or Aryan branch embraces six divisions : viz. 
ihe Russian, Hindoo, Germanic, Slavonic, Romanic, and Celtic. 



I 


A MANUAL OK G KOti It A PHY. 


63 


The Germanic nations are those derived from the ancient Gcr- 
mans ; the Romanic, from the ancient Greeks and Romans ; and 
the Celtic from the ancient Celts. 

5. The Aryan branch is supposed anciently to have occupied 
the fertile valleys of the Hindoo Koosh mountains ; that a portion 
of them emigrated westward. One division settled in Central 
Europe, from which descended the Germans, the,Celts, and Slav¬ 
onians ; another division settled in Southern Europe and gave 
birth to the ancient Greeks and Romans. 


6. The following classification will indicate the principal divi¬ 
sions of the Caucasian race. 

(1. Fellahs of Egypt. 

1. Ilamitic -2. Berbers of North Africa. 


(y Some inhabitants of Soudan. 


2. Semetic 


Caucasian 


Aryan. 


11. Jews. 

• 2. Arabians. 
(3. Syrians. 

1. Persians. 

2. Hindoos. 


f 1. English. 

! 2. Germans. 


A 


Germanic 


j 3 

1 4 


Dutch. 

Swedes. 
Norwegians. 

I 0. Danes. 

( 1. Modern Greeks. 
| 2. French. 

4. Romanic ^ 3. Italians. 

| 4. Spanish. 

( 5. Portuguese. 

11. Welsh. 

5. Celtic - 2. Irish. 

(3. Scotch. 

^ . (1. Russians. 

6. S la von ic - T> , 

( 2 . Pole''. 


CHAPTER XXV. 

PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY COMPARED. 

1. Geographical topics are frequently viewed under a division 
into physical and political. 

2. fn looking round upon the earth, we notice that the moun¬ 
tains and valleys, the lakes, seas and oceans are the works ot God, 







or nature. We observe that cities, roads, ship's are made by men, 
united into political society. Geography is therefore divided into 
two parts— natural, or physical geography which describes the 
works of nature ; and political geography, which describes the 
works and institutions of men in their social capacity. 

3. Physical geography describes the soil, climate, mountains, 
rivers, and seas of different countries. 

Political geography describes the people of different countries, 
their condition, and their works. 

It describes the government, religion, degree of civilization, 
modes of building, dress, and traveling; their roads, railroads, 
canals, towns, cities, villages ; their trade and commerce ; their 
manufactures, agriculture, and other industrial occupation. 

4. The earth was created by God to be the abode of myriads ] 
of happy creatuies, but more especially to be the theater upon ' 
which man is to prepare for a future and affimmortal existence. 

5. The various objects on the earth aie divided, by naturalists, 1 
into three classes, or kingdoms : The mineral , including the soils, j 
rocks, waters, and all unorganized substances ; the vegetable , in¬ 
cluding trees, plants, and shrubs ; and the animal , including all 
beings which live, feel, and move. 

6. Vegetables draw their substance fiom the mineral kingdom, 
and thus prepare food for animals. Man stands at the head of the 
animal creation, and freely makes use of all he finds on the earth, 
that may contribute to his happiness. This privilege is given him 
by his Creator, and he enforces it by his superior skill and wis¬ 
dom. 

7. Animals are endowed with instincts, which guide them in 
the pursuit of happiness ; but man must reach his maturity and 
perfection bv means of education. Uneducated man is a savage. 

8. A chicken will run about, and pick up seeds, when a day 
old ; a duck will swim as soon as hatched ; a calf or lamb will 
walk about and take its milk from its mother, without help or 
instruction, in twelve hours after birth. 

9. But an infant is the most helpless of beings. It must be 
taught to eat, to drink, and to walk. Without education man grows 
uoiude and cruel ; with it he may become an enlightened being, 
acquainted with many sciences, and familiar with his duty here on 
earth, and his high destiny hereafter. 



POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


CHAPTER I. 

STATES OF SOCIETY. 

1. Mankind is found in various stages of civilization. Some 
live chiefly by hunting, fishing and on the spontaneous produc- 
tions of the ground ; they have no knowledge of books, no schools, 
no well defined form of government and' arc. generally blood¬ 
thirsty, cruel and revengeful in their disposition, and treat their 
women as slaves. This is called the savage state. The best ex¬ 
amples of this class are the Indians of America, the aborigines of 
Australia, New Guinea, and many parts of Africa. 

2. The barbarous state is a state higher than the savage. The 
people of this class live by agriculture and the pasturage of cattle 
and sheep ; they roam about from place to place in search of pas¬ 
ture for their flocks ; they understand a few of the most simple 
arts, and have a very limited knowledge of reading, and writing. 

3* ^ he half civilized nations obtain their living chiefly by 

agriculture, commerce,and some of the arts which they understand 
tolerably well. They have also established laws and religion, and 
some schools. China, Japan, Persia and many other countries of 
Asia belong to this class. 

4. The civilized state is a decided improvement upon the half 
civilized. Here the principles of government are tolerably well 
understood : the people live in good houses, and have superior 
institutions for the diffusion of knowledge. The arts and sciences 
are much cultivated ; there is, however, a great difference be¬ 
tween the upper and lower classes of society. Among the nations, 
of this class arc Mexico, Spain, Portugal, Italv, Greece, etc. 

5. The enlightened nations are noted for the intelligence, in¬ 
dustry and enterprise of their inhabitants ; the arts and sciences, 
are here carried to a high state of perfection : females are treated 
with politeness / the principles of fite £G\ci 1 n int ate well 11der 




m 


A MANUAL OF (! EOC! KAPK V. 


stood, and education is more general than among other nations. 
The United States, Great Britan, Germany, France, Switzerland 
are the best examples of this class. 


CHAPTER II. 


GOVERNMENT. 

1. The surface of the earth is occupied by different nations, , 
and these are found in very different conditions as to government; 
some adopting one kind, and some another. 

2. Government is that system, or power by which the laws of 
a country are made and executed. 

(i) The object of government is to afford protection to life and 
property, and to insure the happiness of the people. 

3. Every government exercises three functions ; viz., the legis¬ 
lative, judiciary and executive. 

(1) The legislative function consists in framing laws. 

(2) The judiciary function consists in applying the laws to 
individual cases. It is vested in our courts of justice. 

(3) The executive function consists in enforcing the laws. This 

power in our country is given to the chief executive of the United 
States. • . 

A government is prosperous just in proportion as these several functions 
are faithfully exercised. It matters not how large or how small the govern¬ 
ment, all these departments are applied. In the school room the teacher 
exercises all these, the parent in his family, and so on. 

4. There are three forms of government ; monarch}', democ¬ 
racy, and aristocracy. 

(1) A monarchy is a government where the emperor or king 
rules during his life. 

(2) If the government is limited by law it is called a limited or 
constitutional monarchy , like that of England. 

(3) Where the monarch rules according to his own will, it is 
called an absolute monarchy; as, in Russia, China, and Turkey. 

(4) An aristocracy is a government where the power is vested 
in the hands of a few persons called nobles. This form of gov¬ 
ernment does not now exist alone, but is frequently combined 
with other forms of government. Tn Great Britain, the king or 
queen represents the monarchy ; the nobles in the house of lords 
represent the aristocracy : the house ol commons, the democracy. 

5. A democracy* is a government in which the power is in the 
hands of the people at large. 

(1) In a pure democracy all the people meet-together to make 
their laws ; this form of government was common among the 
early colonies, but in course of time the population increased and 



A MANUAL OF UROGRAPHY. 


C> 7 

was scattered over large areas so that it became impracticable to 
meet in a vast general assembly, besides great confusion would 
follow m so vast a concourse of people : different sections of 
the counti y then sent men whom they chose to represent them and 
theii wishes, in the colonial legislatures : the government was 
thus changed from a pure democracy to a representative democracy, 
or republican form of government. 

6 The first kind of government was the patriarchal , in which 
the father ruled his own family and servants. 

J he Bible records the names ot many patriarchs, among whom were 
Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Noah, etc. This kind of Government still exists 
among the rude and barbarous tribes, the Bedouins of Arabia and the Great 
J>esert, ihe Laplanders, and some others. 

7 - An empire is a country governed by an emperor. 

(i ) Empires arc generally composed of countries immediately 
joining each other, forming a compact body ; as, the empire of 
Germany ; in other instances? empires are composed of countries 
situated in different parts of the earth; as, the British Empire. 

(2) A kingdom is a country usually governed by a king or 
queen; as, Spain, Italy, etc. A kingdom differs from an empire in 
not being composed of separate and distinct states forming a 
whole. 

Prussia is a kingdom; at the close of the late war with Austria, when many 
ot the smaller States ot the Germanic confederation were joined to her and 
consolidated, the confederacy became an empire. 

S. A duchy is a small division of a country governed by a duke ; 
or. it is the dominion of a duke. 

9. A principality is a country which gives title to a prince. 
Prince Albert, heir to the throne of England, is Prince of Wales. 

10. A despotism is an absolute monarchy. 

11. An oligarchy is a government by a few. 

12. The capital of a Country is the seat of government where the 
legislative bodies meets, and where the principal officers reside. A 
central position is usually chosen for a capital. 

13. Capitol means the government building in which the leg¬ 
islative bodies meet: it also contains many offices, such as the 
treasurer’s office, clerk’s office, etc. 

14. A city is a large collection of houses and inhabitants. Cities 
are usually incorporated with peculiar privileges in being govern¬ 
ed by aldermen, mayor, etc. 

15. A town is smaller than a city and has fewer municipal 
privileges. A vilage is smaller than a town : many villages are 
incorporated, and are governed by a mayor and council. 

Cities are divided into different classes and are endowed with privileges 
according to their rank. 


< 


68 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


Each state designates what shall he a city ot the first-class, second-class, 
&c., within its limits. 

In Ohio a city of the first-class has 31,500, or more inhabitants ; second- 
class, from 5,000 to 31,50c. 

Cities of the first-class are divided into three grades : 

First grade, more than 200,000. 

Second “ u “ yo,ooo, and less than 200,000. 

Third “ “ “ 31,500, “ “ “ 90,000. 

Second-class cities are divided into four grades : 

First grade more than 30,500, and less than 31,500. 

Second “ “ “ 20,000, “ “ •* 30,500. 

Third “ “ “ 10,000, 1 2 * * * * * * * * il “ 20,000. 

Fourth “ “ “ 5,000, 10,000. 

The great cities of the earth may be classed under three divisions : cities 
of the first-class containing 1.000.000 or more inhabitants ; second-class, from 
500,000 to 1,000,000 ; third-class, from 300,000 to 500,000. 

16. A seaport is a city or a town situated on some harbor where 
vessels can load and unload their cargoes. 

17. A port of entrance is a city or town with which .foreign 
vessels are allowed by law to trade and where duties are assessed 
and collected. 

iS. The metropolis of a country is its chief city. 

19. A colony is a portion of a country settled by the citizens of 
another country, and remaining subject to the jurisdiction of the 
parent country while in a state of dependence. 


CHAPTER III. 

\ 

GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 

1. The chief magistrate of theUnited States is called president. 
He is elected for a ten’ll of four years, by electors chosen bj the 
people. 

2. Each state has as many electors as it has members in con¬ 

gress; for example, Ohio has twenty-one (21) congressmen and 

(2) two senators, and is, therefore, entitled to twenty-three 

electors ; the two electors corresponding to the two senators are 

called electors at large. The electors are chosen at the time of the 

presidential election and constitute the electoral college. On the 

first Wednesday of December after the election, the electors of 

each State meet in their respective capitols (or in some other des¬ 

ignated pla-ce) and cast their votes for president of the United 

States, and for vice-president also ; these results are forwarded 
sealed to the president of the United States senate, who, upon 



A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


W 

the second Wednesday of February, opens and reads these results 
in the piesence of both houses of congress. A majority of the 
votes cast determines the election. 

3 - As has been observed congress is Composed of two branch¬ 
es, the lower house or house of representatives, and the upper 
house or senate. 

4. *1 he senators are elected to serve a period of six years. 
Each state is entitled to two senators who are elected bv the” state 
legislatures of their respective states. 

5. The president of the United States shall be at least thirty- 
five years of age ; a senator thirty ; a congressman twenty-five. 

6. The members of the lower house of congress are elected 
to serve a term of two years, and are elected by a direct ballot of 
the people. There is one congressman for every 154,000 inhabi¬ 
tants, and according to this apportionment there are in all 325 
congressmen. 


7. For the purpose and convenience of election each state is 
divided into congressional districts ; a district often comprising 
many counties. 


TERRITORIES. 

S. The territories ot the United States do not elect senators, 
but send one delegate each, to the national legislature ; these dele¬ 
gates can speak on all questions pertaining to their own territory, 
but cannot vote. 

(1) The governors of the territories are appointed by the presi¬ 
dent ; when a territory has sufficient population, it may be ad¬ 
mitted into the union as a state by a vote of congress. 

(2) No fixed number of inhabitants is required, which will 
admit a territory into the union, but the whole question of admis¬ 
sion is at the discretion of congress. 

9. The several states of the union have forms of government 
modeled after that of the general government ; they differ among 
each other only in matters of detail. 

10. The president, after having entered upon the duties of his 
office, appoints, with the consent of the senate, seven persons who 
are to become his legal assistants and advisers ; these constitute 
his cabinet. Each cabinet officer has charge of a special depart¬ 
ment of the government. 


70 


A MAX FAR OF O KOOK AIM IY. 


LIST OF CABINET OFFICERS. 


Secretary of State. 

Secretary of the Treasury, 

Secretary of War, . 

Secretary of Navy. 

Secretary of the Interior,. 

Postmaster General,. 

Attorney General,. 


..I-'. T. Frelinghuysen. 
. . . Charles J. Folger. 
. .. . Robert T. Lincoln. 
. . William E. ( 'handler. 
11 enry M. Teller. 

.T. Q. Howe. 

Benjamin II. Brewster. 


11. These departments of the government are called bureaus of 
the president . There are also sub-divisions ; viz., 11 ic bureau of 
education , signifying that department ot the government relating 
to education ; etc. 

12. The judiciary power of the United States is vested in a 
supreme court, nine circuit courts, and titty-eight district courts. 


CHAPTER IV. 

GOVERNMENT OF OHIO. 

1. Ohio, like the other states of the Union, has a government 
patterned after that of the general government; hence, is lepubli- 
can in form. 

2. The officers of the state are governor, lieutenant governor, 
secretary of state, treasurer, auditor, attorney general, commiss¬ 
ioner of common schools, members of Board of Public Works, 
judge of the Supieme Court, clerk ot the Supreme Court. 

3. judges of the Supieme Couit are elected for a term of five 
years ; the Auditor for four years ; Commissioner of Common 
Schools, Clerk of Supreme Court, and members of Board ol Pub¬ 
lic Works are elected for three years; all the other State officers, 
for two years. 

4. d'he legislature consists of a House of Representatives and 
a Senate ; the members of both houses are elected for two years. 

3. The county officers are treasurer, auditor, recorder, survever, 
sheriff, coroner, clerk of court, infirmary directors, commissioners, 

prosecuting attorney, probate judge. 

• 

6. The probate judge, clerk of the Court of Common Pleas, 
county commissioner, surveyor, and auditor are elected triennially; 
the other county officers biennially. 

7. All county and state officers are elected at the time of the 
Fall election — the second Tuesday of October. 










A .M ANTAL OF G F.OCJ l» AIM1Y. 


71 


S. J lie township officers, except the Justice of the Peace, are 
elected annually, on the first Monday of April. The justice is 
elected trienniajlv. The following are the township officers:— 
trustees, treasurer, clerk, constable, hoard of education, and justice 
of the peace. 

9. The state is divided by Congress into townships six miles 
square, and the townships into sections of 640 acres each. The 
townships are numbered north and south, and the ranges east 
and west. 

The following diagram will illustrate the numbering of sections. 


.NORTH. 


6 

5 

4 

3 


1 

j 7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

18 

l 7 

16 

15 

r 4 . 

L 3 

i ! 9 

.20 

21 

2 2 

1 ~> n 
-.•> 

2 4 

30 

29 

28 

2 7 

26 


> 

32 

33 

34 

35 

3 6 


SOUTH. 


10. Salaries of State officers. 


Governor, — - - 

$4,000. 

Lieutenant Governor, 

- 800. 

Secretary of State, 

3,000. 

Treasurer, - - 

- 3,000. 

Auditor, 

3,000. 

Attorney General, - 

- 2,000. 

Adjutant, - -- 

2,000. 


School Commissioner, $2,000. 


Insurance “ 2,000. 

Railroad u 2.000. 

Sec. Brd.of Agriculture, 2,000. 
State Librarian, - - 1,500. 

Chief Justice, - - - ^.500. 


Clerk of Supreme Court, 1.500. 


CHAPTER V. 

RELIGIONS. 

i. All nations have some religious notions , and few or none 
are without a belief in rewards and punishments, bestowed by an 
overruling Deitv. or Providence. The importance attached 
to religion by mankind in all quarters of the globe, is strikingly 

















72 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


displayed in the number and costly edifices erected for this pur¬ 
pose. 

2 . The ideas of mankind are, however, much diversified as to 
the character of the Deity and the modes of doing him homage. 
The belief in Christianity prevails in Europe, and is embraced by 
about one-third of the human race. 

3 . Religion is the reverent worship which man pays to some 
deity, or divinity. 

(1) Religion may Toe divided into two classes, true and false i 

( 2 ) True religion consists in worshiping God according to his 
revealed will ; false religion consists in worshiping idols, such as 
objects in nature, or the works of man’s own hands. 

( 3 ) Religion may again be classed into four divisions ; Christian, 
Mohammedan, Pagan, and Jewish. 

4. Christianity consists in believing in Jesus Christ as the 
savior of the world. 

(1) Christians arc divided into Roman Catholics, Greeks and 
Protestants. 

(2.) Roman Catholics are those who believe in the Pope as the 
spiritual head of the church. 

( 3 ) The Greek Christians reject the Pope of Rome, but accept 
the Patriarch of Constantinople as the head of their church. 

All these agree in the necessity of redemption through the 
Savior. 

5. Protestants are divided into various denominations ; the 
Episcopalians, Methodists, Baptists, Presbyterians, Congrega- 
tionalists, Universalists, Friends, Lutherans, are among the leading. 
These all agree on leading points of doctrine but disagree on minor 
points. 

6. The fews are the descendants of the ancient Inhabitants of 
Judea. They believe in the Old Testament, and maintain the 
ancient worship of theii fathers, but reject the New Testament, 
and expect a savior yet to come. Their places of worship are 
called synagogues. 

7. The Mohammedans , or Musselmans , are belivers in Mo¬ 
hammed, an Arabian, who lived in the sixth century after Christ, 
and who pretended to bring a revelation from heaven, called the 
Koran. His creed was, “There is one God and Mohammed is 
his prophet.” This religion predominates in Turkey in Europe, 
and the western part of Asia. It is also scattered over other parts 
of Asia and portions ©f Africa. Mohammedan places of worship 
are called mosques , 

8., The Brahmins and Buddhists , or whor shippers of the 
Grand Lama , believe in a deity who holds communion with man- 


A MANTAL OF OEOU K A I'll V 


73 


kind through many interior divinities, some good, and some 
bad. Of these, they have images and idols, which they wor¬ 
ship in temples called pagodas. 

Brahmanism is a very old system of pagan worship. Bralim, the supreme 
divinity of this system, delegated his power to three inferior gods, Brahma the 
creator, Vishu the preserver, and Siva the destroyer. The Hindoos are fol¬ 
lowers of this faith. 

About four hundred years before the Christian era, a great re¬ 
former arose under the name of Buddha, “the enlightened,” who 
introduced many important changes into Brahmanism. lie is 
worshipped as a god, and his followers are called Buddhists. 
This religion, in a modified form is’the religion of the Japanese, 
Chinese, and most other Mongols. There are no distinctions of 
caste among the Buddhists so common among the Brahminists. 

9. Man}* ignorant and savage tiibes, called pagans, believe in 
fetishes , or good and bad spirits, which dwell in particular places. 
They also put faith in idols and amulets. To their gods they 
pay a kind of worship, which often consists in dance sacrifices 
and other uncouth rites designed to propitiate them. Cannibals 
are those who not only practice human sacrifice, but also eat hu¬ 
man flesh. 

10. Christians maintain that all other religions ether than their 
own are false ; and, if we compare the state of society in Christen¬ 
dom with that in other parts of the earth, we.shall see that, while 
Christianity tends to enlighten and elevate the mind, all the 
heathen religions debase and degrade it. 


CHAPTER VI. 


LA NOT AGES OF MANKIND. 


1. Language is any means of communicating thought, feeling, 
or purpose. Language may be classed as follows : 


Language, 


^1. Natural. 
(2. Artificial. 


\a. Spoken. 
( b . Written. 


( 1) Natural language is that which all beings have in common, 
and consists in laughing, weeping, expressions of the face, gestures, 

and the like. 

(2) Artificial language is language invented by man. 





74 


A MANUAL OF GKOCi RA !M! V. 


( 3 ) Spoken language is the expression of thought, feeling, etc., 
by means of articulate sounds. 

(4) Written language is the communication of thought, etc., by 
means of written or printed characters. 

2. There are many different languages in the world, and even 
different letters and alphabets.- All the languages of Europe 
have the same letters as our own, except the Greek and Turkish. 
The following are specimens of some of the principal European 
languages, given in the first line of the Lord’s prayer :— 

English- —Our Father, which art in heaven. 

German —Unser Vater, in dem liimmel. 

Dutch —Onze Vader, die in de hemclen zijt. 

Latin —Pater nostro, qui cst in coelis. 

Italian —Padre nostro, che sei lie’ cieli. 

Spanish —Padre nuestro, que estas en los cielos. 

French —Natre Pere, qui es aux cieux. 

3. • In all these languages, the same letters are used ; the numeral 
signs are also, the same. .Vs to numbers, they form a universal 
language for Europe and America. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc., though 
called by different names, carry the same ideas throughout those 
countries. 

4. There are about So original languages in the world and 
3.500 dialects ; some authors estimate the number of languages 
more than Soo and dialects about 5,600. 

(1) A dialect is a peculiar mode or form of writing and speak¬ 
ing a language. More than 1,600 dialects exist among the Amer¬ 
ican Indians. 

5. The English language, spoken bv us, as well as bv the I 
people of Great Britain, is the most extensively used of any Eu¬ 
ropean tongue. It is noted for its strength, simplicity, large 
vocabulary, and the great number of books and newspapers 
printed in it. 

The German language is not so smooth as the English or French, j 
but many valuable books have been written in it. 

The French , for a long time the court language of Europe, is 
noted for its beauty, ease of learning it, power of expression, and 
for its many valuable books. 

The Italian is the language of poetry and song. 

The Spanish and Portuguese are also cultivated much. 

The Chinese is spoken by the greatest number of people. 

6. There arc many books in the Chinese, Persian and Arabic ! 
languages ; but they are far inferior to those.of Europe. 





A MAM'Ali OK (! KOOK AIM IV. 




1 he rudest tribes of men have language ; but manv tongues are 
never used in writing or in books. 

7 - 1 l ie languages spoken by the Germanic nations are derived 

trom the ancient German. Those languages derived from the 
ancient Latin are called Romanic. 

The following classification will indicate at a glance the deriva¬ 
tion of the principal languages of Europe : 


1. English. 

2 . German. 

3. Dutch. 

1. Germanic -J 4. Norwegian. 

5. Swedish. 

6. Swiss. 

7. Danish. 


LA \GGAGES - .{ 


Rom a n ic 


| 1. French. 

! 2 . Spanish. 

| 3. Portuguese. 
[4. Italian. 


^ 1. I rish. 

1 3. Celtic - .:. Scotch. 

^3. Welsh. 

^ 1. Russian. 

(4. Slavonic - 2 . Polish. 

(3. Turkish. 


CHAPTER VIE 

OCCtTATlOXS OF MANKIND. 

1. Most of the animal tribes, as quadrupeds, birds, fishes, 
insects. cCC., live on the spontaneous products of nature. 

2 These have hair, or feathers, or scales, for clothing. They dwell in the 
open air, or in water, without shelter, or in rude, or unartificial houses and 
homes. 

3. It is otherwise with mankind. They are born naked, and must have 
artificial clothing. They must have various kinds of food, mostly prepared b\ 
cookerv ; and finally they must have well c.mstructe 1 houses. 

4. In a savage state the wants of man are few, and lie lives almost like 
a beast ; hut as he grows more refined, his wants are multiplied, and, to sup¬ 
ple them, he becomes a thinking, contrivin industrious being. Th is the 
desires of man are the sources of his improvement. 







cp In a cultivated state of society, some men devote themselves 
to agriculture ; that is, they till the land, and are called farmers, or 
husbandmen. To the labor of a farmer we are indebted for wheat, 
rye, and other grains, which are made into bread ; and for meat, 
milk, and the flax, wool, and cotton of which our clothing is 
made. 

6. Some persons devote themselves to the braking of shoes, 
clothes, hats, and other articles 3 these are called manufacturers . 
Many men learn trades, such as that of a mason, carpenter, black¬ 
smith. &c. ; these are called mechanics. 

y. Some persons buy and sell different kinds of useful articles. 
The common business of buying and selling is called trade; that j; 
which is carried on in ships, or vessels, is called commerce. 

It is by the means of commerce that the products of one country are car¬ 
ried to other countries. By means of commerce, we get tea from China, 
pepper from Sumatra, coffee from Java, sugar from the West Indies, oranges 
and lemons from Portugal, figs from Smyrna, silks from France, etc. We 
give, in exchange for these articles, the products of our own industry. 

8. The exports are the articles sent out of a country, as mer¬ 
chandise ; The imports are the articles of merchandise brought into 1 
a country. Domestic commerce is the trade between places of ; 
the same country. Foreign commerce is the trade between diff¬ 
erent countries. 

9. Many persons devote themselves to mining , for the pur- ■ 

pose of obtaining coal, iron, tin, copper, gold and silver ; others j 
become fishermen; others huntsmen; others again fell trees, for j 
timber. 1 

10. One of the principal occupations of society, in all ages of the ! 
world, has been that of war. 

The profession of the soldier has generally taken precedence of the indus- I 
trial and productive occupations. Mankind has at last learned, however, J 
that war is generally destructive to the best interests of the people at large, 
and hence, there is a growing love of peace among all intelligent nations. L 
TVe mav hope that the day is not far distant when nations shall lay aside their ( 
weapons of misery and death and learn to war no more. k 

11. The productions of a country form important topics of jj 
geography. These are called agricultural, mineral , and nmnu- j 
factured. 

The agricultural productions may be divided into two classes, vegetable 
and animal. The most important vegetable productions are wheat, corn, rice, c 
potatoes, cotton, trees for building, medicinal plants, &c. Domestic animals 
are those animals which have been tamed by man for his use, to assist him in li 
the production of wealth. i 

The most useful domestic animals are the horse, mule, cow, sheep, goat. 





A MAM’AI, OF («EO(iUAPIIY. 


77 


dog, hog, &c. I he leading manufactured products are cotton and woolen 
goods, silks, hardware, machinery., agricultural implements, boots and shoes, 
clothing, furniture, paper, books, musical instruments, articles of fashion. Sec. 


CHAPTER VIII. 

VIEW OF THE WORLD.-GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE. 

l^ suiface of tlie globe is viewed bv geographers 
under six Grand Divisions. 

EXTENT AND POPULATION. 

2. It is supposed to contain nearly 200,000,000 square miles. 
A little over 50,000,000 are land, and 150,000,000 water. The 
whole number ot inhabitants upon the globe is estimated at 1,462,- 
500,000, distributed as follows : 


(JR AND DIVISIONS. EXTENT IN SQUARE MILES. 

POPULATION. 

North America. 

South America. . 

Europe. 

Asia ... 

A trie.a. 

Australia . 

9,050,000 
6,900,000 
3,800,000 
17,100.000 
11,557,000 
3.42 t.ooo 

74,(X)o,(X)o 
25,500,000 
318,000,000 
835,000,000 
2 06,000,000 
4,000,000 


5 1.831 ,(X)o 

I ,402,500,000 


RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD. 


5. 215,000,000 Catholics; 130,000,000 Protestants; 78,000,000 

Greek Christians; 300.000,000 Buddhists; 145,000,000 Brahmins; 
100,(000,000 of the Religion of Confucius; 12,000,000 to 20,000,000 
Shinta Religion of Japan; 199,000,000 Mohammedans; 7,000,000 

Jews. 

MAPS. 

4. These are usually so drawn, that the western hemisphere. 
contains the American continents, and the eastern hemisphere the 
eastern continent, embracing Europe, Africa and Asia. Each 
hemisphere ranges through 180 degrees of longitude; the dividing 
lines arc the meridians 20 degrees west of Greenwich and 16a 
east of the same. 

























7-8 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


DISTRIBUTION OF LAND. 

5. In looking at the maps of the hemispheres, it is obvious 
that by far the larger portion of land on the globe lies north of 
the equator, or in the northern hemisphere. 

6. All North America, the West Indies, a portion of South 
America, all Europe, Asia, and nearly all Africa, lie in the north- 
urn hemisphere. 

7. The greater part of South America, a small portion of 
Africa, and all Australia lie in the southern hemisphere. 

8. In general it may be stated that not more than 50,000,000 
people—that is not more than one-thirtieth of the population of 
the globe—live south of the equator. 


CHAPTER IX. 

HISTORICAL OUTLINE.-ANTIQUITY OF TIIE EARTH. 

1. By examining the surface of the earth, geologists have come 
to the conclusion that the globe on which we live has existed for 
many thousands of years. It appears to have undergone many 
revolutions, during which there have been several successive crea¬ 
tions, by which the whole animal and mineral kingdoms have 
been changed. 

MOSAIC CREATION. 

2. But that creation of which the Bible tells ns, when the 
present continents and oceans were formed, and when the pres¬ 
ent races of animals, with man himself, were made by God, took 
place nearlv 6000 vears ago. 

EARTH PREPARED FOR MAN. 

3. Previous to this time, no human beings had existed on the 
earth. ^ arious kinds of animals had lived and perished ; vege¬ 
tation had overspread the face of nature ; but, as vet, there had) 
been no tenant ot the globe endowed with intelligence sufficient 
to understand and appreciate the ways of Providence, but at last 
the earth was fitted and prepared to be the abode of man. 


ADAM AND EYE. 


q. And now God created Adam and Eve. At this point of 
time, the history of the human race begins. We are entirely in 







A MAM'AL OK GROGRAPHV. 


79 


clebted to the tiist books of the Old Testament for an account of 
the creation, and the history of the world for 2000 years after 
that e\ ent. 1 he history of subsequent ages is made up from in¬ 
scriptions upon monuments, the remains of sculpture, and from 
manuscripts, and documents of yarious kinds. 

CAIN AND ABEL. 

5. The Bible informs us that Adam and Eve had several 
children ; the first of whom was Cain, and the next Abel. These 
quarreled, and Cain killed his brother: a terrible event, fore¬ 
shadowing that strife which, in all ages, has filled the history of 
mankind with records of battle and bloodshed. 

THE DELUGE. 

6. 1 he place where Adam and his immediate descendants 
lived, was in the western part of Asia, where the climate was 
warm, and the soil fruitful ; and many of them lived to the age* 
of eight or nine hundred years, they increased rapidly and built 
large and populous cities. But they became very wicked, and 
the race was cut off by a deluge, or flood, 2.348 years before 
Christ, or 1,565 years after the creation. 

NOAH—BA B EL. 

7. Noah and his family, with pairs of various animals, were 
saved in an ark, which he built by the command of God. These 
persons settled in the valley of the Euphrates, and their descend¬ 
ants began to build a tower, called Isabel, which should reach 
to the skies. But they were punished for their vanity ; for in 
the midst of their work, their language was confounded, so that 
the workmen could not understand each other. This event, called 
confusion of tongues , took place 2,247 years before Christ. 


CHAPTER X. 


DISPERSION OE MANKIND.— EMIGRATION. 

1. At this very early period, various bands of emigrants left 
the vallev of the Euphrates, and settled in different parts of Asia. 
Some also proceeded to Africa, and founded the kingdom of 
Egypt, 21SS B. C. 

2. After several centuries, other companies established them¬ 
selves in Europe ; still later, various tribes found their way to the 
islands of the Pacific ocean, and, at last, to America. Thus the 
six grand divisions of the earth were peopled by the descendants 
of Adam and Eve. 



80 * 


A M AM! A L OF (i EOGRAPHY. 


VARIETIES OF MANKIND 

3. At the present time, we find mankind not only differing in 
government, religion, manners, customs, but also in personal ap¬ 
pearance, intelligence, character, and language. These varieties 
are supposed to be the result of differences in climate, food, gov¬ 
ernment, and modes of life. 

ASSYRIA. 

f 

4. Although large numbers of people emigrated from the valley 
of the Euphrates, it appears that multitudes remained and here 
the first great empire began 2229 B. C. This was called Assyria, 
and its capital bore the name Nineveh. The latter became a 
mighty city, with, at least, half a million inhabitants ; but it is 
now a heap of ruins—its houses, temples, and palaces being bur¬ 
ied beneath the soil. 


IiABVI.OX. 


5. Babylon was another great city, founded in these ancient 
times, and at no great distance from Nineveh. It became the 
most splendid city in the world, and is often mentioned in the 
Bible. This, too, has perished. Where kings and queeiis, and 
princes once dwelt, the wolf, and jackal, the owl and the bat, 
find a secure retreat. 

ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF CIVILIZATION. 

6. It appears that civilization had its begining in western Asia. 
Here mankind first formed society, organized government, and 
made progress in the arts and sciences. At no distant day, Egypt 
became the most enlightened, cultivated, and civilized country 
in the world. At a later period, the arts and sciences passed into 
Europe, where they were carried to greater perfection than thev 
had been before. America was discovered at a later date, and 
hither European civilization was gradually transplanted. 


CHAPTER XI. 

HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY. 

The knowledge of geography possessed by the ancients was 
exceedingly limited, and their ideas and notions concerning this 
worlej we live in were very erroneous. 



A MAM AL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


81 


The / hienicians were thefirst who made any great progress in 
extending the hounds of geographical knowledge. They explored 
all the coasts ot the Mediterranean, passed through the strait of 
Gibraltar, and visited the shores of Europe to Britania, and the 
Baltic. .1 hey also continued their explorations along the shores of 
Africa to the tropic ot Capricorn. What knowledge of distant 
lands the Hebrews possessed, they doubtless obtained of the 
Phoenicians. 

j\ echo, King of Egypt about 600 B. C., was the first who made 
any attempt to enlarge the bounds of geographical knowledge, bv 
an exploring expedition. He sent a* fleet of Phoenicians'down 
the Red sea and into the Indian ocean ; after circumnavigating 
Africa they came back through the pillars of Hercules, or strait oT 
Gibraltar. 

I lie Cartkagim a ns d i d much to increase a knowledge of geogra¬ 
phy among the ancients. Iheir extended commerce led necessarily 
to long voyages, and in this way became acquainted with many 
lands and many peoples. 

About 320 B. C.. Phytkeas , of Manila, the modem Marseilles, 
visited some distaht land, supposed by some to have been Iceland, 
by others Jutland. About 330 B. C.. Alexander the Great , by 
bis explorations in the conquest of the world, greatlv enlarged the 
knowledge of Asia : he traveled as far as India and China." 

Erastosthenes was the first who made a systematic attempt at 
scientific geography. He flourished at Alexandria in th; latter 
part of the third century B. C. The scientific schools of Alexan¬ 
dria recognized the globular form of the earth, and Erastosthene? 
based his system upon this recognition, though he did not regard 
any such thing as equator, poles and tropics,—primal features of 
modern geography. The central base line was a parallel drawn 
through all places having 14J hours as their longest day. Iceland 
was considered the north end of the world. While it was gener¬ 
ally believed that beyond these discoveries there was nothing but 
an impassable ocean, Erastosthenes conjectured that continents 
and islands might be reached bv sailing westward. 

Hipparchus, who lived at Rhodes, in the second century before 
Christ, succeeded Erastosthenes and based the whole science of 
geography on astronomical principles which was only a develop¬ 
ment of the system as explained by his predecessor. 

Strabo , a Greek of Pontus and a great traveler, who lived about 
the time of the dawn of the Christian era, wrote the first treatise 
on geography. The knowledge of the earth at this time was still 
quite vague. The countries bordering on tlie Mediterranean were 
tolerably well known, but the knowledge of the rest of the world 




■was wjqtw nn perfect. r l hev knew not hi rig' of China, Sibeiia, Fai- 
tarv, Japan, and looked upon the Caspian sea as the noithetn. 
limit of ft he world. 

The earliest Homangeographer , Pompcrius Mala , who lived in 
the time of Claudius, divided the earth into two hemispheres ; the 
northern, that part of the earth which is known, and the'southern, 
which is unknown, The former he divided into three gieat di¬ 
visions, Europe, Asia and Africa - , however, the boundaries of j 
ithese divisions were not exactly as defined by modern geogra¬ 
phers. 

Ptolemy , a still more famous geographer, a resident of Alexan¬ 
dria, lived in the second century after Christ. 

The notion that the known world was surrounded by boundless 
•seas had been given up, and that the boundary of the world was 
.an expanse of terra incognita was substituted. Africa was sup- | 
posed to extend indefinitely to the south, and the Indian ocean, 
-was represented as being surrounded by land, like the Mediter¬ 
ranean. 

From this time on during the dark ages but little progress was 
made in geographical knowledge. In the 9th century the North¬ 
men are said to have discovered Greenland, and in the 10th cen- 
tury, America. Marco Polo, a Venetian, gave the first knowl¬ 
edge to Europe of the Japan islands. lie also visited China and 
the East India Islands. He lived in the 13th century, A. D. In 
the fph century the spirit; of enterprise and exploration was 
aroused and Portugal took the lead. 

But the greatest of all geographical explorers, whose name will I 
live in the memory of man as long as time shall last, and whose | 
praises will be sung to all coming generations, was Christopher [ 
Columbus. He was a native of Genoa; a knowledge of the 
•spherical figure of the earth led Columbus to believe the eastern { 
parts of the earth approached so near Europe that they could 1 
be reached bv sailing westward. The great object which at i 
this time engaged the maritime world, was to find a passage | 
By sea to India. On August 3rd, 1492, under the patronage of 1 
Ferdinand and Isabella, king and queen of Spain, lie left Palos i 
with three small vessels and ninety men. On the 12th of October 1 
following, after a perilous voyage, he discovered Guanabard, one 
of the Bahamas, and which lie named Sail Salvador. lie made 
three other successful voyages, but was finally ignominiously | 
thrown into prison, where he died ignorant of the fact that lie had 
•discovered a continent. 

From this time forth, many discoveries and explorations were] 
made, and a knowledge of the earth rapidly increased. The Per¬ 
sians have aided much in a better knowledge of Asia. The chief 







A MANUAL OK (iEOOKAI‘11 V, 


Ahican explorers have been James Bruce, Mungo Park. Major 
Denham, Lieutenant Clapperton, Richard Lander, Captains Bur¬ 
ton and Speke, Dr. Livingston, Dr. Barth, Hcuglin Sir Samuel 
Baker, Stanley, and Paul Du Chaillu. 

Humboldt, Lewis and Claik, by their travels, have enlarged 
our acquaintance with the interior of America. 

China and Japan have lately been opened to the world, and our 
knowledge of these countries has greatly increased. Much of 
the interior of Australia remains to be explored ; of the 
island of New Guinea we are almost wholly ignorant, except 
what has been observed along the coast. 

Carl Ritter created the science of comparative geographv, al¬ 
though marked changes have taken place since his time in the 
literature of geography. Under the auspicious labors of such 
excellent institutions as the London Geographical Society, we 
may reasonably hope that, in the near future, our knowledge of 
this world will be much more extended and much more perfect. 


CHAPTER XII. 

ON TEACHING GEOGRAPHV. 

Geography is naturally interesting to most people ; vet in the 
hands of an unskillful teacher, it becomes diy and irksome- I 
presume that nearly every teacher who has his heart in the work, 
sometimes feels himself perplexed in endeavoring to interest his 
pupils ; and to give a little assistance and a word of advice to such, 
is the object of this article. 

Of course, it is necessary that good text-books be provided ; 
for with a poor tool no artisan can expect to do good work. But 
the matter of success depends much more upon the teacher than 
upon the text-book he uses. 

In the first place the teacher must be enthusiastic, in real earn¬ 
est, if be expects his pupils to be interested. The pupils will 
naturally imbibe the spirit of the teacher and will move or lag in. 
the recitation as lie does. No one can expect to interest a class in 
a subject in which be himself feels no interest. 

In the second place the teacher must be thoroughly prepared on 
the lesson. lie ought to be so full of the subject as to be able to 
conduct the recitation without the text-book. lie must know 
more than the text-book contains, nay, even more than he ex¬ 
pects to teach, if lie wislies to teach geography or any other sub- 

.ect successfully. 

1 



84 


A MANUAL OF (»EOGIiAI*HY. 


Geography should be taught topically, that is, the whole subject 
should be thoroughly classified, so that every department is pre¬ 
sented systematically in all its various relations. *As black-board 
exercises, the pupils should frequently be required to write out a 
topic list for the study and recitation of the lesson. These exer¬ 
cises are invaluable drills, and the whole lesson should occasionally 
be written out in full, following the order in the topic list, each 
pupil taking one or more divisions. Spelling, punctuation, gram¬ 
matical errors, choice of words, etc., should be pointed out and 
corrected by the pupils of the class, with the help of the teacher, 
in friendly criticism. 

Pronunciation can not be too carefully watched, and no error of 
this kind should be allowed to be passed by without correction. 
A good pronouncing gazetteer is an invaluable article on every 
teacher’s desk. 

Great care should be taken that there shall not be too much uni¬ 
formity in the mode of recitation. Pupils will tire of routine 
work, and that teacher who can successfully vary the mode of 
recitation has gained a very important vantage ground. Variety 
of the right kind is a very significant factor in* conducting a suc¬ 
cessful and interesting recitation of any kind. 

The teacher must possess originality, the ability to devise and 
invent methods, or he must be set down as a failure to a great ex¬ 
tent. jvlany teachers go to teacher’s institutes, read books and 
methods of instruction, and expect that a careful application of 
these methods will make them' successful, but they often find 
themselves sadly mistaken. 11 is well enough to learn methods, 
but in practicing these methods, the teacher must be himself, he 
must be original in them, not merely a copyist. 

It should also be remembered that what one teacher can use 
with success another may fail in, and what will do for one school 
or class will not do for all. It is not necessary that the teacher 
should be a chameleon, but he ought to be able to change his tone, 
language, and methods to suit the circumstances. 

Map drawing is important, but too much time is spent in at¬ 
tempting to draw artistic maps. 

If properly conducted, sketching can be made very interesting 
and certainly far more profitable than the ordinary system of 
map-drawing. 

All the pupils should be sent to the board at the same time, and 
then at the direction of the teacher, every one should draw the 
same lines, and locate the same places, at the same instant ; and 
this should be done from memoiy without any stereotyped rules 
of diagram. These maps should all be reviewed and criticised by 
the class and teacher. From ten to fifteen minutes can be spent 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


85 


\eiy piofitably in this way, after which the description of the 
country under consideration can be entered into with a zest, be¬ 
cause all have become interested. 


CHAPTER XIII. 

ON THE STUDY OF GEOGRAPHY. 


FIRST.—METHOD. 

i. 1 he synthetic method consists in begining with the pupil’s 
own immediate neighborhood or home ;' it then takes the town¬ 
ship, next the adjoining township until the whole count v is em¬ 
braced ; from the county to adjoining counties, until" all the 
states are included. After this follows the outline of the grand 
divisions, and so on till the whole world is complete. 

2. Th ^analytic method is the opposite and begins with a general 
view of the world, by regarding its form and leading divisions ; 
then subdivisions. Both these methods have strong points, but 
the latter is generally preferred, inasmuch as it early admits of 
the introduction and study of the globe. 


SECOND.—FACULTIES OF THE MINI) EXERCISED. 


i. The perceptive faculties are first addressed,—that is, the 
impression which any object makes upon the mind while view¬ 
ing it. 




2. The conccptive follows which retains past perceptions, and 
forms from them general notions, classifications, and furnish ma¬ 
terial for thought. After the pupil has seen a mountain range 
or waterfall he recalls afterward to his mind the shape and 
height of the mountains, the roar of the cataract, the volume of 
water, the force of the current, etc. A proper cultivation of this 
faculty furnishes* an indispensible basis of progress in geo- 
g ra p h i c a 1 knowledge. 

3- Imagination. This faculty is constantly brought into requi¬ 
sition. When a volcano is spoken of the mind at once goes out 
to imagine the flowing lava, the lurid flames ( as thev dart from its 
summit, the forked lightning, and the whole enveloped by dense 
clouds of smoke, the hoarse bowlings of the raging elements 
within, the quakings of the earth, the mighty force exhibited, etc. 

The couise of the streams must be followed in the imagination, 
the general configuration of the coast and surface must be pictur¬ 
ed in the mind, else the knowledge of countries and places never 
seen, will remain a blank. 

4. Memory. This is the last faculty called into exercise, but 
is one of the most important. The study of geography forms an 
admirable means of strengthening this faculty and should always 
have its due share of cultivation. 




80 


A >1 ANTAL OF (il’OGHAI’H V. 


DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 


CHAPTER I. 


SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 


The following topic list is to be used in the preparation and 
recitation of lessons. After the map exercises have been careful¬ 
ly learned and recited the description of the country under con¬ 
sideration should be taken up. Assign to each pupil one or more 
topics, to be written out on the black-board, and then recited 
and criticised ; or if preferred these topics can be recited orally. 

Only the names of places to be located need be written ; the 
locating should be done acording to model given below. 


TOPIC LIST. 


I. Position 


\ i . 
12 . 


H- 

II. Extent -j3. 


By Boundaries. 

By Lat'd A: Long’d. 

Length. 

Breadth. 

A rea. 


f 1. General Outline. 

2. Capes. 

| 3. Gulfs and Bays. 

III. (.’oast -j 4. Seas. 

('han'ls, Str’ts. Sn'ds. 
Islands. 

f 7. Peninsulas. 

( 1. Gen'rl Characteristics. 
T -• Mountain Ranges. 

IV. Surf'ce -{ 3. Mountain Peaks. 

| 4. Pl’ns, Plat’us. Val’ys. 

I v Natural Curiosities. 


i .v 
HS. 


V. Lakes - 

< 

VI. Rivers 


Location. 

Description and use 
Course, 


li. General features, 
X. Commerce -J2. Exports. 

(;3. Imports. 

(i. For Agriculture. 
XI Nat. Adv’g - 2. For Commerce. 

(3. For Manufact’ng. 

i i. Public Roads. 
X 11 .Int’nl Imp’nts - 2. Railroads. 

(3. Canals, etc. 

XIII. Animals. 

XIV. Political Divisions. 

f 1. Race. 

| 2. Number. 

| 3. Occupation. 

J 4. Language, 
j 5. Government. 
| 6. Educatian. 
j 7. Religion. 
fS. Historv. 


X \ . Inhab’nts. 


/ , 

. .V 

VII. Soil. 

VIII. Ohm ite. 


Size 

Uses. 


{ 1. Length. 

12. Size ofBasin. 


XVI. Chief ^ 1. Location, 
towns and - 2. Population, 
cities. ( 3. LeadingInd’str-% 


XVII. h oreign Possessions. 
1 1. Agricultural. 

IX. Productions - 2. Mineral. 

(3. Manufactured. 



A M ANTAL OF O EOOh A I'll V. 


87 


IIOW TO MAKE MAP EXERCISES INTERESTING. 

“In Geography, much lias to be learned as words, or little more 
the verbal memory has a large share in the acquisition. In this- 
view, the names should be relieved ol drvness by various arts, as 
well as by endeavoring to impress real conceptions corresponding 
to them. —Alexander Bain. 

1 he map exercises can be made von interesting, as follows : 
Divide the class in two equal sections, sav A & B ; give one question 
or moie to each pupil, and when the A’s recite allow the B’s to 
correct the errors ; do this by selecting some one of the B’s, but 
it he fails allow some one of the A’s to correct and so save the 
word to his side. No one should have more than one trial, and 
neither side move than two on the same word. Some one may be 
allowed to keep a tally of questions missed. The teacher must be 
umpire. 


MODELS FOR MAP EXERCISES. 

Bavs, etc.— l he Hudson bay is in the north-eastern part of 
North America and is a tributary to the Atlantic Ocean. 
Tames bay is in the southern part of Iiudson bav. 

Capes.—Cape Barrow projects from the northern shore of Alas¬ 
ka, into the Arctic Ocean. 

Straits.— Behring's strait separates North America from Asia, 
and connects Behring's sea with the Artie Ocean. 

Islands.—Newfoundland lies east of North America, between 
the gull of Sc. Lawrence and the Atlantic. 

Peninsula 6 .—Florida projects south-west from the south eastern 
part of the United States between the Atlantic and the gulf of 
Mexico. 

Mountain Ranges.—The Apalachian mountains are in the 
eastern part of the United States and trend north-east and south¬ 
west. 

Mountain Peaks.—Mount St. Elias is in South-eastern Alaska. 

Plains —The Colorado plateau lies between the Rockv and 
Wasatch mountains. 

Lakes.—Lake George is in the eastern part of New York. 

Rivers.—The Mississippi river rises in Lake Itasca, in Minne¬ 
sota, Hows in a southerly course, and emptied into the gulf of 
Mexico. 

Cities.— New York is situated in south-eastern New York on 
the bay of New York. 

Columbus, the capital of Ohio, is situated near the center of 
the state, on the Scioto river. 


38 


> MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


CHAPTER II. 

NORTH AMERICA.—MAP EXERCISES. 

GULFS, BAYS AND SEAS. 

Caribbean, Mexico, Hudson, Baffins, California, Chesapeake, 
Hondurus, James, Coronation, Boothia, Penny, Fundy, Un^ava’ 
Lincoln, Fonseca, Nicoya. ^ & ’ 

CAPES. 

Barrow, Bathurst, Prince of Wales-, Lisburn, Corrientes, San 
Lucas, San Eugenia, Blanco, Flattery, Mendocino, Mariato, Chid- 
ley, Charles, Sable, Hatteras, Cod, Race, Farewell, Brewster 
Bismark, North. 

CHANNELS, STRAITS AND SOUNDS. 

Florida, Hudson, Davis, Smith, Denmark, Behring, Fox, Bar- 
row, Melville, Banks, Jones, Lancaster, BelleisIe^Chestetfield 
Inlet. 

ISLANDS.. 


Newfoundland, Cuba, Hayti. Jamaica, Porto Rico. West Indies 
Bahama, Greenland, Iceland, Cape Breton, Bermuda, Disco’ 
Santa Baibara, Vancouver, Queen Charlotte, Bank’s Land North 
Devon, Baffin Land. 


J 1JS b L I. 


Lower California, Yucatan, Alaska, Labrador, Florida, Kenai. 
MOUNTAIN RANGES. 

P Rocky, Apalachian, Sierra Madre, Wasatch, Sierra Nevada 
Cascade, Coast, Alaskan. 


MOUNTAIN PEAKS. 


St. Elias, Fair weather, 
Colima, Jorulo, Orizaba, 


Fremont's Pk.. Popocatepetl, 
Shasta, Brown, Hooker, Hekla. 


Toluca, 


PLAINS, PLATEAUS. 

A Colorado, Great The Great Plains, Atlantic 

Mississippi Valley, Arctic Plains, Arctic Plateau. 


Coast Plain, 


LAKES. 


Great Lakes, Superior, Michigan, II 
nipigoos, Manitoba, Great Salt, & Deer, 
Great Bear, Clearwater. 


uron, Erie, Ontario, Win- 
Athabasca, Great Slave, 



A M AM A I, OF UKOORAIMIY 


Si> 


RIVERS. 

Mississippi, Missouri, Platte, Arkansas, Red, Ohio, Rio Grande, 
Pecos, Grande de Santiago, Colorado, Gila. Columbia, Yukon, 
Mackenzie, Athabasca, Saskatchawan, Red river of the North, 
Albany, Rupert, East Main, Nelson, Churchill, Coppermine, 
Great Fish, St. Lawrence, Ottawa. 

CITIES. 

Washington, New York, Philadelphia, Vera Cruz, Boston, 
Cincinnati, Louisville, Chicago, Acapulco, Cleveland, Buffalo, 
Quebec, Montreal, Mobile, Ottawa, Toronto, Halifax, St. Johns, 
Wilmington, Denver, St. Louis, New Orleans, San Francisco, 
Mexico, Havana, Mazatlan, Matamoras, Guatamala, San Salv¬ 
ador, St, Paul, Milwaukee. 

RELATIVE POSITION. 

In what direction is Quebec from Mexico? from Havana? Mon¬ 
treal? Mexico from Greenland? from Central America? Alaska? 
West Indies? St. Louis from Nashville: from New Orleans? Mexi¬ 
co? New York? Baltimore? San Francisco? Austin? 


TRAVELS. 

Through what countries would you pass in traveling by land 
from Prince of Wales to the Isthmus of Panama? From Labra¬ 
dor to Mexico City? to Florida? 

Trace a water route from New York to Halifax ; to New Oi¬ 
lcan's ; San Francisco; St. Paul; Vera Cruz; Chicago. From 
New Orleans to Pittsburgh; to Columbus; Kansas City; Havana. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

What is the latitude of the mouth of the Mississippi? of Mexico? 
Washington? St. Louis? Quebec? What is the longitude of the 
same places? What place of North America has now the longest 
day? The shortest day? Are the days and nights any where of equal 
length? What is the difference of time between Washington and 
Chicago? Columbus? New York? Portland? In what direction 
from tlie north jiole is Iceland? In what part of North America 
does the sun remain above the horizon all day on the 21st of June? 
By means of the scale of miles, what is the distance from Wash- 
ingtontoNew York? to Columbus? Chicago? New Orleans? 
James Bay? Cape Bathurst? Cape Farewell? Two men start from 
Buffalo, the one travels 5 degrees east and the other 5 degrees 
south ; which has traveled farther and about how much? What 
is the altitude of the sun at noon in Boston on the 22d of Septeni- 
er? on the 21st of December. 


r 




V 


90 


A VI ANTAL OF GKOGRAPJIV. 

DESCRIPTION * 


POSITION. 

1. North America lies between the parallels 7 0 and 72 0 north 
and between 55 0 and 16S 0 west longitude. 

It is bounded on the north by the Arctic Ocean; on the east by 
the Atlantic ; on the south the Atlantic, South America and 
the Pacific; and on the west by the Pacific. 

EXTENT. 

2. Its length is nearly 5,000 miles, and greatest breadth about 
3,2000 miles. Area 9,050,000 square miles. 

COAST. 

3. The coasts of North America are very irregular, ana in¬ 
dented by vast gulfs and bays. The coast line measures 27,500 
miles, and contains many of the finest and most capacious har¬ 
bors in the world. It has one mile of coast to every 266 square 
miles. 


CAPES. 

4. The extreme capes are Barrow , Charles, Mariatoand Prince 
of Wales ; others are Sable, Farewell, Cod. Hatteras, &c. 

GULFS AND RAYS. 

5. The eastern coast is much more indented than the western. 
The most important inlets are Baffin's Bay, Hudson, the Gulf of 
St. Lawrence, which gives an entrance' into the Great Lakes, 
Gulf of Mexico, California, and so on. 

SEAS. 

6. There are but few seas on the coast. The Carribbean lies 

south-east of the Gulf of Mexico ; Lincoln sea north-west of 
Greenland. * 

CHANNELS ANI) STRAITS. 

7. The Hudson strait, named after its discoverer, Henry Hud¬ 
son, connects the Hudson bay with the Atlantic ocean, and sep¬ 
arates Labrador from the islands north. The strait of Belleisle 
connects the gulf of St. Lawrence with the Atlantic and separ¬ 
ates Newfoundland from Labrador. The strait of Florida con¬ 
nects, etc. 



N NMKS. 


X NMKS. i WIDTH OF STRAITS. LENOTH. 

remarks. 

Hudson. 60 to 1 50 miles. 400 miles 

Belle Isle i , 



Florida . -0 40 miles. 

Bell ring’s. 46 

• ' N I ^ i 1 l1 {.) 11 lllisai C. 

Fisc \ rd Iiy \ itus Behrum 

Denmark. 14^0 *• 

Davis . . 2 fx> 


Smiths Sound . 1 So *• 1 iomiles 



I SLA X DS. 


S. Many of the Islands arc very large and productive, hut a 
vast majority of them are situated in the Arctic regions and are 
hut little known. Some of the principal islands are Greenland 
and Iceland north-east ot the continent : St. Lawrence east of 
the gult ot St. Lawrence, etc. Greenland is more than i 100 
miles long and is probably the largest island in the world: some 
gcogiapliei s think it is a cluster of islands frozen together. Ice¬ 
land geographically belongs to America, hut is considered In 
some as belonging to Europe, because of its earlv discovery, in 
the 9th century A. I). 1 'he areas of the principal islands are as 
follows : 


Green land. 
Newfoundland, 
('uba, 

11 ay1i. 


760,000 square miles. 
q/>.o(X) 

45,000 “ “ 

29,000 ** “ 


\ ancouver, 15,000 square miles. 
Iceland. 40,000 *• “ 

Jamaica, 5,4.00 ** “ 


I ’ E N I XSfl.AS. 


9. I'he peninsulas" of most importance are Florida, in the 
south-eastern part of the United States, Yucatan. Lower Califor¬ 
nia. Nova Scotia, etc. 

siijfaA. 


10. '/'he physical features of North America are on the most 
gigantic scale. Here we find the longest rivers, the highest 
mountains, (except tlie Himalaya), the most extensive plains, the 
most sublime cataracts, the largest lakes, and the finest vallcv in 
the world. 

MOU XT A1 xs. 


ii. The Rock\ Mountains trend nearl\ north and south, from 
200 to ^<>0 miles from the coast ; south of Colorado they are called 
Sierra Madre. Sierra means range and madre mother. The 
loftiest peak is Mt, Grown. The ranges west are called Cascade. 
Sierra Nevada. Coast Range. The Apalachian system in the 
eastern part of the United States trends north-east and south-w est 
and comprises many ranges, the principal of which are A lie-, 
ghetiv. Cumberland. Glue. etc. 


























m 


A MANUAL OF GEO( i II A PII V. 


The highest peak of the Apalachian is Mt. Mitchell, having 
an altitude of 6,600 feet. 

12. The following are the highest peaks of various ranges : 

St. Elias 19,500 feet. Hooker, 15,750 feet, Pike’s Peak, 14,147 feet. 
Fair-weather, 19,500 “ Washington, 6,228 “ Popocatepetl,17,783 u 

Shasta, 14,440 “ Long's Peak, 15.271 “ Whitney, 15.000 “ 

Brown, 16,000 “ 

Mean height of Rocky Mountains, 10,000 to 12,000 feet. 

“ “ Sierra Nevada. S.000 to 10,000 “ 

“ “ Apalachian, 3,000 to 4.000 

PLAINS, PLATEAUS, ETC. 

13. The Mississippi valley, one of the most extensive in the 
world, lies between the Apalachian and Rockv Mountains. It is 
noted for its fertile soil and excellent drainage. The Colorado 
plateau, between the Rocky and Wasatch, is on an average 4000 
feet above the sea level. Tlfe Great Interior Basin is elevated 
from 3000 to =;ooo feet and is sterile. The height of land sepa¬ 
rates the rivers flowing into the St. Lawrence system from those 
flowing into the Hudson Bay system. There are. many val¬ 
leys of great beauty and fertility. The plateau of Anahuac is the 
most elevated portion of Mexico, having an altitude of 6000 to 
8000 feet. The Arctic plateau has a height of 1500 feet. 

NATURAL CURIOSITI ES. 

14. North America abounds in objects of great interest. A 
more detailed account of its curiosities will be given in the treat¬ 
ment of its divisions. 

The Niagara and Yosemite falls are the grandest in the world. 
The Mammoth cave has been explored many miles. Other caves 
as the Madison, Blowing. Richmond are of great interest. The 
mountain and lake scenery is not surpassed bv that of any other 
grand division. The Great Canon of the Colorado is- the most 
sublime spectacle of its kind, being from 2000 to 6000 feet deep 
in many places ; while the vast plains, enriched with nature’s 
most profuse and luxuriant vegetation, stretch out in long dis¬ 
tances. 

LAKES. 

15. North America is renowned for its great lakes. It con¬ 
tains three-fourths of all the fresh water on the globe, The 
largest, Lake Superior, is about one-third as large as Great Britain. 
Between lakes Erie and Ontario is the sublime cataract of Niagara. 
There are two great lake regions \\\ North America; the & first 
commencing in the eastern part including the lakes of Maine 


A MANUAL UK GEOGRAPHY. 


u:\ 


and Canada, together with the Great Lakes, and thence reaching 
to the .\rctic ocean ; the second is found in the western part 
embracing the lakes of Oregon, Nevada, California, etc. The lat¬ 
ter arc nearly all salt. The lakes of this Grand Division arc also 
noted for their great depth and the commercial facilities they afford. 
In the north they are very transparent ; in some, as in Lake 
\\ innipeg, a white object can be seen at a depth of c)o feet. 


A RKA. HEIGHT DEPTH 

Square ab’ve sra 
miles level. 


9,oooj 628 ft 1 . 

6,165 *28 520 ft. 

14,000; . 

1 i,Soo.j... 

2,600 4,210 ft. 60 ft. 


16. 1 he Mississippi, measuring from the source of the Missouri, 

which may be considered its head stream, is the longest river in 
the world. Many other rivers are of great size and vast com¬ 
mercial importance. 

The three great water s/icds of North America divide it into 
four great hydrographical basins: 1 st, That which empties its 
waters into the Arctic : 2nd, the Atlantic basin ; 3rd, the Pacific 
basin ; and 4th, the Gulf basin. 



LENGTH 
in miles. 

AREA 

of basin. 

1 

LENGTH AREA 

in miles j of basin. 

Mississippi. 

Missouri. 

4.200 

2,908 

2,120 

2,120 

1,197,500 
518,00c! 
442,000 
298,000 

Arkansas. 

Columbia 

1,500 189,000 

1 ,oooj 338,000 

i,8oo; 240,00a 

95°| 214,000 

Mackenzie.. . 

Rio Grande 

St. Lawrence . . 

Ohio 

. 


SOIL. 


Superior. 

Huron. . 
Michigan.; 

Erie. 1 

Ontario 


AREA. 

Square 

miles. 

32,000 

21,000 

22,400 

9,600 

6.200! 


height depth.. 
ab*ve .sea | 
level. 


603 

s§2 

•5S2 

5 73 
250 


ft.(1,000 ft. Winnipeg 


Soo 

1,000 

204 

606 


Nicaragua. 
Great Bear 
■ Great Sl'vc 
Salt Lake. 


R1VKKS. 




17. North America embraces every variety of soil. Its vast 
fertile regions are known and celebrated everywhere. Except 
in the tar north and in the great interior basin, its soil is uncqual- 
ed in productiveness, and great multitudes from all parts of the 
world have been attracted hitherto reap the rich rewards it yields 
to husbandmen. 


CL1M AT K. 


iS. The climate of North America is variable and generaih 
healthy, but Ls subject to* great changes. It may be remarked 































A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


'M 


that it is about ten degrees colder on the Atlantic coast than on 
the opposite coast of Europe ; the Pacific coast is also warmer 
than the Atlantic, owing to the Pacific equatorial current sweep¬ 
ing along the western shore. The prevailing westerly winds 
bring genial warmth and so render the climate of the Pacific 
states warmer. The extreme cold of the north-east is referable 
to the Arctic currents which skirt these shores. 

PRODUCTIONS. 

19. The leading agricultural productions are wheat, corn, rye, 
oats, barley, rice, cotton, tobacco, cattle, horses, sheep, swine, and 
the various fruits of torrid and temperate zones. 

MINERALS. 

20. Minerals of nearly all kinds arc abundant. Gold is found 
in many parts, but especially in the western part of the United 
States. Silver in Colorado. Nevada, California, Mexico, etc. 
Iron and coal abound in almost all parts. The great lead regions 
of Illinois. Iowa and Missouri arc the richest in the world. Oth- 
<er minerals are abundant :—zinc, copper, antimonv, cobalt, nickel, 
platinum, titanium, quicksilver, tin, etc. Large quantities of pe¬ 
troleum are found in Pennsylvania. Marble, granite, limestone, 

tsetc., exist in ma'nv localities. 


MAXU FACTURES. 

2n. The manufactured productions are numerous and of many 
varieties, such as cotton and wbolen goods, machinery, hardware, 
wdothing, furniture, agricultural implements, books, leather, but¬ 
ter, cheese, etc. 

I he United States takes the lead of the North American States 
in Manufacturing. 


COMMERCE. 

22. America is still in its infancy, yet its commerce has grown 
*0 vast proportions. The United “States ranks next to Great 
Britain in the commerce of the world. 

(1) America exports raw cotton, wheat, petroleum, lumber, 
cattle, fruits, coffee, and a great variety of manufactures. 

(2) The imports are manufactured articles from Europe, wines, 
raisins, spices, tea, and the like. 

N A T U R A L ADVANTAGES. 

-Uv 1 he excellent soil, favorable climate, and good facilities for 
markets are the chief inducements and advantages for a^ricuU 
ditrc; while its extensive and numerous bays, length of sea-coast 







A MANUAL OK (imiUlUV. 


05 

navigable rivers, broad and deep lakes, afford advantages for 
commerce not excelled by any other grand division. Nortlf Amer¬ 
ica has one-third more sea-coast than Asia, about three times 
that ot Africa, and considerable more than twice that of Europe. 
1 here are 13.000 miles of coast on the eastern side and 11.000 
miles on the Pacific shore, including the indentations. 

( 1 ) lhe great abundance of minerals and all kinds of raw ma¬ 
terial, good shipping advantages, water power, cheap living are 
rapidly filling the country with manufacturing establishments. 

INTKRN'AI, 1M PROVKM K \ I S. 

24. rhe \yhite inhabitants of North America, particularly those 
ot the United States, have always been active in the invention, 
introduction, and spread of useful improvements of all kinds. 
Jn the construction of railroads and canals it takes the lead. Al¬ 
though the country is new, it ranks among the foremost nations 
ot the ear ill in the variety and value of useful inventions. 

ANIMALS. 

25. The domestic animals, such as the horse, cow, mule, sheep, 
hog, &c., were brought hither from Europe bv the first settlers. 

Among the principal native animals are the muskox, white bear, 
and silver fox of the polar regions. In the temperate parts arc 
the bison, and several species of deer, bear &c. In the southern 
portion are alligators and a variety of poisonous serpents. 

There are 700 species of birds, of which nearly 300 are pe¬ 
culiar ; the turkey and mocking bird belong to the latter class. 

POLITICAL DIVISIONS. 

26. Danish America occupies the north-eastern part. The 
Dominion of Canada, the northern ; United States, the central ; 
Mexico, south-western ; Central America, the southern : the 
West Indies lie between North and South America. 

CHIEF TOWNS AND CITIES. 

27. The leading cities are New York, on New York bay ; 
Philadelphia, on Delaware river; Boston, on Boston harbor; 
Washington, on Potomac river ; N ew Orleans, on southern part 
of the Mississippi river: Baltimore, on the Chesapeak bay ; Chi¬ 
cago. on lake Michigan ; San Francisco, on San Francisco bay ; 
Mexico, the capitol of Mexico, in the southern part: Montreal 


A MAM AL OF G FOG K A I»H V. 


06 

and Quebec, on the St. Lawrence river ; Otawa, on the Otawa 
river, &c. 


CITIES. 

New York. 

Philadelphia. . . 

Brooklyn. 

Boston. 

San Francisco.. 
Chicago. 


PO P U L A TI ON. !! CITIE S . 


i,206,00c Toronto. . 
S47,ooo;i]\Iontreal, , 
567,000! Mexico . . 
370,000}!Havana.. . 
234,000 i Halifax.. . 
503.00c Vera Cruz 


INHABITANTS. 


POPULATION. 

46,000 
11 7,000 
210,000 
230,000 
30,000 
10,000 


2S. The inhabitants of North America consist of the descen¬ 
dants of different European nations, negroes, Indians, and mixed 
races. The extreme northern part and Labrador,are inhabited by 
Esquimaux who belong to the Mongolian race. The white races 
are everywhere the governing people, except among the wild 
Indians, and in the island of Hayti where the people are chiefly of 
African descent, and have an independent government. These 
races are thus distributed : 


Indians, 6,000,000 ; Mixed races, 3,000,000 : Negroes, 10,000,000 ; Whites, 
54,000,000 ; Total population, nearly 75,000,000. 

29. The leading occupation is agriculture,, which gives employ¬ 
ment to more than six-sevenths of the whole population. Com¬ 
merce, manufacturing, and mining, are extensively carried on. 


GOVERNMENT. 

religion. j language. 

Danish America.Belongs to Denm’k 

British America. . “to Great Brit’n 

United States. Republic... 

Mexico.Republic.. 

Central Amer,States Republic.1 

Lutheran .... 

Dan’sh & Fr’nch 
English. 

English. 

Spanish. 

Spanish. 

Protest, and Catli. 
[Protestant chiefly. 
Principally Cath’lic 
| Principally C'ath'lic 


^ Hayti is occupied bv two republics ; Jamaica belongs to Great 
Britain ; Cuba and Porto Rico to Spain. The language of these 
islands is chiefly Spanish ; religion, Catholic. 


education. 


30. Liberal provisions are made for education in the United 
States and some of the British provinces ; in Mexico there are few 
schools of a high order, but here, as well as in Central America and 
the \\ est Indies, the mass of the people are very ignorant and 
superstitious. Among the Inhabitants of Iceland, education j s 
far more general. 


























A MANTAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


i»7 


HISTORY—ENGLISH 1)1 SCOVERIES. 

31. South America was discovered by Columbus in 1.19S, but 
Nottb America was discovered the year previous, along the coast 
, V, b ™ ,3r ’ J ol , m » n ‘> Sabastian Cabot, two Italians sent out 
by the king of England, Henry VII. The next year Sabastian 
discovered \ irgima ; and in 1517.be entered one of the straits 
v\ Jiicii le.uls into Hudson's bav. 


SPANISH DISCOVERIES. 

(I) Ponce de Leon, a Spaniard, discovered Florida in 1Z12 : 
1 ucatan was discovered by Fernandez de Cordova in 1^17 Cand 

Mexico, by Grijalva in 151S. De Soto discovered the Mississippi 
m 1^42. 1 1 


F R E N C H DI SCO V E R I E S 

( 3 ) Verranzi, a Florentine, sent out by Francis I., touched along- 
the coast, in 1524, from North Carolina to Riiode Island. He 
afterward proceeded to Newfoundland and explored its shores. 

i 534 t _ 5 ' J ames Cartier entered the gulf and river St. Law¬ 
rence, giving them their present name, fie passed up as far as 
Montreal, and took possession of the countrv in the name of the 
king of France. 

(4) These discoveries, with others which followed, became the 
foundation of the several claims of these nations to territories in 
North America. 


.VOTES TO TE.H'MMERS* 


1. The pupil should, under no consideration, he required to commit the 
descriptive lessons sons to be able to recite them verbatim ; nor should he be 
confined strictly to what is contained in the text, but should be alovved to ex 
press all he has learned on the subject, in his own language, whether that be 
obtained from the text-hook or elsewhere. 

2. The various statistical tables are not intended to he learned by the pupil, 
only so much as the teacher may, with discretion, require ; they should, how¬ 
ever, he studied because much of great value to the student of geograph v, is. 
to he learned from them. 

It is customary to place these statistics at the end of the volume, but it has 
keen my observation that they do not do much good when placed so far from.' 
Ihetrxt, besides confusion and inconvenience result in referring to them. 
When placed in connection with the topic studied, the pupil is fa* more like!i. 



18 


A M ANTAL OK < i KOG U AI’H V. 


to study them and thus'becomes acquainted with many important facts he 
would otherwise overlook. 

3. The interest in geography may be increased by introducing a “question 
-drawer.'' Allow the pupils to give questions to be answered by the class at 
some subsequent time, say each Monday : from 10 to 20 questions will be 
sufficient for one week. 

4. Many topics c.m not be considered in the text-book, and such may be 
assigned to the pupils, to be reported on at the time of some subsequent les¬ 
son. 

\\ hen the proper time comes assign to one or more pupils, the subject coffee, 
cotton, nutmegs, "Mason and Dixon’s Line, f ’ the large bells of the world, and 
such other topics which will be of interest to a class in geography. These 
reports should be as free as possible from technicalities. 

The teacher can add much to the whole by giving suitable and interesting 
incidents in connection with the subject. 


CHAPTER III. 

UNITED STATES. 

MAP EXERCISES.—LOCATE THE FOLLOWING : ' 

Capes:—Ann, Cod, May, Charles, Henry, Hatteras, Lookout, 
Canaveral, Sable, Conception, Arenas, Mendocino, Blanco, Dis- 
apointment, Flattery, Prince of Wales, Lisburne, Barrow, Hope, 
Fear. 

Gulls and Bays:—Cape Cod, New \ ork, Delaware, Chesapeake, 
Tampa, Apalache, Mobile, Galveston, San Francisco, Saginaw, 
Bristol, Cook’s Inlet, Green. 

Straits and sounds:—Long Island, Albemarle, Pamlico, Florida, 
Juan de Fuca, Pugets, Behring’s Norton, Kotzebue. 

Islands:—Long, Nantucket, Martha’s Vineyard, 'Drv Tortugas, 
Santa Barbara, Aleutian, St. Lawrence, Nunivak, Kadiak, Bar- 
anoff. 

Peninsulas:—Cape Cod, Florida, East Maryland, Lower Michi¬ 
gan, Upper Michigan, Alaska, Kenai. 

Mountain Ranges:—Apalachian, Alleghany, Blue, Blue Ridge, 
Cumberland, Green, Adirondack, Catskill, White, Rocky, Sierra 
Nevada, Cascade, Coast, Zuni, Mongollon, Wahsatch, Ozark, 
Steen Snow, Big Horn, Laramie, Uintah, Wturners. 

Mountain Peaks:—Washington, Pike’s Peak, Black Dome, 
Longs Peak, Fremont’s Peak, Wilson, Uncampahgre, Shasta’ 
Diamond, Hood, Adams, St. Helens, Baker, Olympus, Whitney. ’ 



A MANIA!. OK <; K<)(JIJ A I’ll V. 


99 


Plains, valleys, etc:—Mississippi. Atlantic, Coast Plain, Colo¬ 
rado, Great Basin, Great Plains of Columbia, Llano Estacado or 
Staked Plain, Death Valley. 

Lakes:—Great Lakes, Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, On¬ 
tario, Champlain, Great Salt, Tulare, ot the Woods, Rainy, Moose- 
head, Grand. 

Rivers:—Mississippi. Arkansas. Red, Missouri, Ohio, Cumber¬ 
land, Tennessee, Alleghany, Monongahela, Hudson, Connecticut, 
Delaware, Penobscot, Kenebec, Susquehanna, Potomac, Roanoke, 
Neuse, Pamlico, Cape Fear. Great Pedee, Santee, Savannah, Al- 
tamaha, St.Johns, Apalachicola, Flint, Mobile, Alabama. Tom- 
bigby, Sabine, Colorado, (Tex.), Trinity,. Brazos, Rio Grande, 
Colorado, (Ara.), San Joquin, Sacramento, Columbia, Snake, 
Humboldt, Green, Grand, Yellow Stone, Kansas, Platte. 

Miscellaneous:—What states are crossed by the 25 0 north latitude? 
by the 30 0 ? by the 35 0 ? by tbe 40 0 ? by the 45 0 ? 'What states are 
crossed by the meridian of Washington? bv the S2 0 west of 
Greenwich? the 90 0 ? the ioo°? theno°? the 120 0 ? What cap¬ 
itals on or near the 30° north latitude? the 35 0 ? the 40 0 ? the 42 0 ? 
the 44 0 ? What is the difference of time between Washington 
and Boston? Columbus? St. Louis? Denver? San Francisco? 

Relative Position:—In what direction is Maine from New York? 
Minnesota? Colorado? Texas? Ohio from Florida? Alabama? 
Texas? Delaware? Connecticut? Utah? Washington Ter.? Ari¬ 
zona? Arkansas? Missouri from Mississippi? New Tersev? Ore¬ 
gon? 

Travels: — What states would you cross in going in a straight 
line from Hartford to Austin: to Wheeling? In going from New 
York to San Francisco? to Montgomery? To St. Paul? In going 
from Columbus to Pensacola? Topeka? to Yankton? to Olympia? 
Trace a water route from New York to New Orleans; to Chica¬ 
go; From Boston to Washington; to Liverpool; to St. Peters- 
burgh; to Richmond; From Columbus to Nashville; to Fort 
Wayne; From Rochester to Oshkosh; to Duluth; to Denver. 

DESCRIPTION. (EXCLUSIVE OF ALASKA.) 

Position:—The United States are bounded on the north by 
British America, on the east by the Atlantic, on the south by the 
Gulf of Mexico and Mexico, and on the west by Mexico and the 
Pacific. They lie between the 25 0 and 49 0 north latitude, and 
between 67° and 134 0 west longitude. 

2. Extent:—The length fiom east to west is about 2S00 
miles, and from north to south 1600 miles. Area exclusive of 





100 


A MANUAL OF GEOGHAT’HY. 


Alaska, 3,027,000 
miles. 

square miles 

: with Alaska 

3,604,0ot) 

square 

Distances from Washington : 




New York. 

.22^ miles. 

Astoria. 


miles 

Augusta, Maine. . . 


Quebec. 

.S40 


New Orleans... 


1 Iavana. 


1* 

Austin..... 


San Francisco.. . 

. 2 457 

“ 


3, Coast:—With the exception of the north-east the coast of the 
United States on the Atlantic and Gulf is low. 

The general trend of the Atlantic slope is south-west, but there 
are four distinct curves : The first from the eastern coast of Maine 
to New York ; The second from New York to Cape Hateras : 
the third from Cape Hatteras to southern Georgia ; and the 
last extending thence to the southern end of Florida.* The 
shores of the Pacific are mostly bold and rocky ; they contain few 
harbors. The entire coast line measures 12.000 miles, exclusive 
of inlets, and 3450 miles of lake coast; including inlets about 
24,000 miles. There are many safe and commodious harbors. 

4. Capes:—There are numerous capes projecting into the Sea. 

1 lie pupil should be required to locate as many as he is able from memory. 

5 - Gulfs and Bays:—The following is a list of the principal 
gulfs and bays: 


Mexico. 

Cape Cod:. 

New York. 

Delaware. 

Chesapeake 
San -Francisco. 
Mobile. 


LENGTH. 

iOOOl 

35 

8 

55 

20c 


BREAD1 H. 

800 

- 5 
6 

3 to 25 

4 ‘ 40 
3 “ 12 

18 

1 


ARE A. 

800,000 

6of> 

3 r > 

IOO 

8,000 

3-5 

56a 


6. Straits and Sounds:—The strait of Florida separates Florida 
from the Bahamas. The strait of Juan de Fuca is on the north¬ 
west of Washington Territory, It is 100 miles long and 20 wide. 

The principal sounds are as follows: 


NA V 

LENGTH. 

Long Island.. . 

I IO 

Albermarle. . 

55 

Pamlico. 

75 

Pugets. 

75 

Vineyard. 

20 

Nantucket. 

5 ° 

Norton. 

200 


BREADTH. 

2 to 20 
4 “ 15 

IO 

45 


A REA. 


2000 
600 
1 5 OO 

90 

2000 


DEPTH. 


Dangerous. 


Navigable. 
Nav* but rath, shal, 
Navigable. 
Deep. 






































A MANUAL OK G EOG I.’ A I’ll V. 


10L 


ISLANDS. 

The following is a list of the principal islands: 


X* A ME, 

LENGTH 

BROTH 

A R E A 

Long. 

I IO 

2 to 20 

l6So 

M arthasVinev r'd 

16 

3 to 4 

48 

Nantucket. 

1 >ry tortugas.... 

21 

They 

6 

are 10 in 

number 

Santa Barbara. 

They 

are S in 

n umber. 

Gr. Manitoulon. 

So 

20 

1600 

Drummond. 

20 

10 

contains 

St. Lawrence. . 

So 

3 C 

— > 

BaranofT. 

75 

15 


Aleutian. 

150 

in num 



1 *01» LTN 


RKMARKS 


541,000' numerous light houses. 
4.123 A fav’rt summer re*’rt. 
j A summer resort, 
and con tain a fort & l’gh house, 
andutter'lv barren, inhabited by 
2,011 lleav* timb'r [sea fowl. 
1 British fort. 

Inhabited by Esquimaux. 

Coal has been found on it. 

2.oot Mountains or volcanic 

8. Peninsulas :—Florida is the largest and most important pen¬ 
insula. Others are Upper and Lower Michigan, Cape Cod, East 
Maryland and Alaska. 

9. Surface:—From a general view of the United States, as 

presented by the map, we perceive that it is divided into three 
physical sections—the Atlantic slope, the Pacific s/op.c and the 
Great Valiev of the Mississippi. , 

The Atlantic slope is from 50 to 300 miles wide and contains 
over 300,000 square miles. There is much broken country in the 
a vest. 

MOUNTAIN RANGES. 

10. The Apalachian system in the east and the Rocky with the 
numerous branches in the west. The following table exhibits the 
principal ranges with their height : 

Apalachian, mean height. 3000 to 4000 feet. 

Ro««kv •• •* . 10.000 to 12,000 “ 

Sierra Nevada *• ...... . . 8.000 to 10.000 

Coast “ •* . . 3000 “ 

11. Mountain Peaks:—The following is a list of the principal 
Peaks : 


X A M K. 


Pike's Peak... 
Long's “ 
Spanish ** 
Fremont “ 

St. Elias .... 
Fair weather . . 
Marcv. 


HEIGHT.. 


X A M K . 


II (, HT. 


14.147 , Whitney. 15,000 

14.271 Shasta. 1 4.440 

11,000 Ilood.| n,200 

15.700 St. Helens. 9,550 

19,500 Washington. 6,280 


19,51*0 jKatahdin. 

5,403 ! Peaks of Otter. . 


5 - 3^5 

4.000 


12. Plains. Plateaus:—Some of these have already been describ¬ 
ed. The most productive and largest is the Mississippi valley, 
containing ncarlv two-thirds of the territory of the United States; 
It is one of the most fertile tracts in the world, and is supposed 

































A MWt'AL OF (iROlihAI’IIY. 


102 


to be capable of sustaining a population of 500.000,000. The* 
Great Basin lying between the Wahsatch and the Sierra Nevada 
is an extensive bairen region from 4.000 to 6,000 feet high and 
embracing an area of 210,000 square "miles. The Colorado pla¬ 
teau lies between the Rockv and the Wahsatch mountains ; it is 
the highest plain in the United States, having an elevation from 
6,000 to 7,000 feet. 

13. Natural Curiosities:—The United States abounds in the 
romantic and sublime in nature. The most stupendous cataract, 
the most beautiful landscapes, the most gigantic plains, some of 
the most collossal peaks, and the grandest caverns are contained 
within her boundaries. 

14. Lakes:—The lakes of the United States form a grand fea¬ 
ture of our continent, and present the extraordinary spectacle of 
inland seas of fresh water, sufficient in extent to become the scene 
of battles between hostile navies, and highways of busy and 
thriving commerce. The following are the principal : 


NAME. / 

LEX GTII 

BREADTH, 

Superior . . 

43 ° 


Michigan . . . 

3 -° 


i 1 uron. 

280 

IOC 

Erie. 

230 

60 

Gr. Salt. . . 

(JO 

2 0 tO 35 

( hamplain. 

100 

I tO I-) 

St. Clair . . . 

3 ( > 

24 

Lak’of Wood 

100 



A R H A 

DEPTH . 

height ab'v sea level. 

32.OOO 

I .OOO 

603 

2 2.000 

1,000 

3S2 

2 1,000 

Soo 

3S2 

9.600 

204 

573 

2,6()0 

60 

4,200 


600 

93 

360 

20 

57 i 

977 


15. Rivers:—The United States is one of the finest watered 
countries on the globe. It contains about 25.000 miles of river 
navigation of which 20,000 are afforded hv the vast Mississippi 
syste n ; this is the longest river in the world and contains 1 ^oo 
navigable tributaries. 




X A M E. 

LENGTH 

AREA basl MILKSOP NAVIGATION. 

M ississippi.... 

4,200 

1,197,GO( 

22(x >. to St. Paul. 

M iss. proper.. 

3.1OO 



M issouri 

2,900 

5 iS.ooc 

2600, to Fort Benton. 

A rkansas. 

1.300 

189,000 

630, to Fort Smith. 

Red. 

1,600 

97.000 

330, to Shreveport. 

Ohio . 

930 

2 1 4 .(XXI 

930, to Pittsburg. 

11 udson. 

35 ° 

1 2.000 

160, to Trov. 

Potoni ac 

400 


110, to Washington. 

•J)ela\vare..... 

55 ° 

I 1,000 

73. to Trenton. 

Savannah.... 

55 ° 

10,000 

230, to Augusta,1 30 further hv small boats 

Mobile . 

45 


45 - 

Colorado . . . 

1,000 

223,000 

300, 

Rio Grande.. . 

I ,Soo 

240,000 

300. for small boats. 

Sacramento. . 

3.50 


230. to Red Blurt". 

('olumbia. 

1,000 

33S.GOO 

113. to Vancouver. 

Yukon . 

2,000 

200,000 

1300. through the Rockv Mts. 




































A MAMA!. OF < J K< *4; If A IMl V. 


ion 

16 Soil: 1 his is greatly diversified. Some portions are barren, 
but the greater part is highly prolific. In the 1 o th-east the 
soil is better adapted to grazing than to tilling. The “Missis¬ 
sippi Valley,” as has been said, is one of extreme fertility. That 
portion lying between the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra 
Nevada is the most desolate region in the United States, though 
m many parts of this, good crops may be obtained by irrigation. 
Much of the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains has a poor soil: 
it is however well adapted to grazing. 

1 7 Climate:—Reaching through 25 degrees of latitude, the cli¬ 
mate is greatly varied. In the north the cold of vvintei is extreme: 
this season lasting five months. The coldest place is said to he 
Pembina. 

The average annual temperature varies from 76° in southern 
Florida to 36° in north-west Minnesota. It is much warmer in 
the Pacific slope than in corresponding latitudes on the Atlantic 
slope, owing to the warm winds from the ocean current, sweeping 
along the western shore. The climate* of the western plateaus is 
dry and changeble, caused by the absence of moisture. Often at 
noon, the temperature is 70°or So° above zero and sinks below the 

freezing point during the night Along the southern and south-east¬ 
ern coasts the climate during thl heated term is unhealthy ; but gen- 
e rally the climate of the U. S. is as favorable to health and longevity 
as that of any other part of the; world. The greatest rainfall oc 
curs in western Oregon, about So inches annually, the . least in 
southern California, whereon an average 20 inches falls each year. 
In the Mississippi Valiev the average annual rainfall is from 21 to 
to 50 inches. 

iS Agricultural Productions:—The leading agricultural produc¬ 
tions are wheat, oats, corn, potatoes, cattle, sheep, hogs, from the 
central states; hay, corn, rye, barley, oats, cattle, sheep, irom the 
north-eastern states; cotton, corn, rice, tobacco, hemp, oranges, 
lemons, from the southern states; wheat, fruit, cattle from the west¬ 
ern states. 

19. Minerals:—I he l nited States is exceedingly rich in minerals 
ot almost all kinds. Gold and silver are found in large quantities 
in nearly all the western states and territories. Iron is common to 
most parts, coal exists in greater quantities than -any other country. 
Tennessee and the New England states yield larger quantities of 
marble and granite. The lead regions are literally inexhaustible: 
the first embracing an extensive territory at the junction of the 
three states, Illinois, Iowa and Wisconsin;the second covering an 
area of 3.000 square miles in Missouri, a little south-west of St 
Louis; other minerals are copper, zinc, -salt, nickle, quicksilver, 
petroleum, etc. 

20. Manufactures:—These are important and of great variety. 
As a manufacturing nation it ranks next-to Great Britain, the value 





004 


’.\ MANUAL OF ItKOGIJAPIIV 


\ 


ot the products in ,1880 being $5,370,000,000. New Y01 k, Pennsl- 
vania, Massachusetts, and Ohio rank as the first states in this 
branch of industry. The leading articles are agricultural imple¬ 
ments, boots and shoes, clothing, cotton and woolen goods, liquors 
distilled and malt, soap and candles, iron wares, flour, sugar and 
molasses, prepared tobacco, etc. 

21. Commerce:—The value of our commerce during the year 
1880 was $1,504,000,000; of which $835,639,000 wefe exports, and 
$667,955,000 imports, being next to Great Britain, the most ex¬ 
tensive in the work!. - 

About 57% of all the commerce of our country is conducted 
through the port of New \ork. The whole number of vessels 
employed is about 25,000. Besides the foreign commerce there is 
an immense inland trade carried on by means of the numerous rail¬ 
roads, canals, rivers and lakes. The exports are mainly bread- 
stuffs, raw cotton, provisions, mineral oiK tobacco, cotton o-oods 
cattle, tallow, furs, leather, sugar; imports, cotton, woolen, linen, 
silk goods, iron and steel manufactures, fancy goods, jewelry, 
prescious stones, sugar, molasses, and cigars. 


fist. For Agriculture. 

22. Natural Advantages: ^2d. “ Commerce. 

(3d. u Manufacturing. 

Hie pupil should be required to state the natural advantages of the United 

states. 

23. Internal Improvements:—Canals are numerous and railroads 
cross the country 111 every direction. At present there are 104,000 
miles ot railway completed being nearly equal to that of all Europe, 
and 154,000 miles of telegraph lines. The National Road built 
by tlle general Government, extends from Cumberland, in Mary¬ 
land westward, crossing the states of Pennsylvania/Ohio, Indiana, 
to Missouri. The public roads, in general," are good,"and bridges 
many of which are costly and elegant, cross the principal streams. 

Animals:—The wild animals are no longer numerous in the 


3 4 - 


1 1 . . ♦ • 1 - £5 ‘1 U mvi UUo III LI 1 C 

older settled regions ; the lox, wolf, wild-cat, panther, grizzly and 
athei varieties of bears, aie found in the uncultivated regions 
Crocodiles alligators, and other serpents are found in southern 
waters. I he horse; cow, sheep, hog, mule, goat and the common 
barn-}aid fowls, except the turkey, are not indigenous, but were 
brought from the Old World by the first settlers" 

25. Inhabitants:—The inhabitants of the United States arc com¬ 
posed chiefly ot immigrants from Europe and their descendants 
arc fast disappearing before the onward march of 
the white man. I here are many negroes in the southern state* 

who were formerly in a state of slavery but are now all free ; they 
number about two-fifths ot the population of this section. 

-26. Populationv—The whole number of inhabitants bv the last 


A MAM AL OF (i KOti ].* AIM! V. 


la- 


census ( 1SS0) was 50,152,866 ; of these 6.577,000 were colored, and 
105,000 Chinese. There are besides 300,000 Indians not included 
in these figures. 

CENSUS OF THE UNITED STATES, 1S80. 


Alab'ma 
A rizona 
Arkan’s j 

< ’alf’rn'a 

Color'do 
( onn. 

1 )akota. 

J )elaw’r. 
D.of Col 1 
Florida 
(ieorgia.l 
Idaho.. . 
Illinois, j 
Indiana. 
Iowa . 
Kansas.. 
Kent'kv. 

I .ouis’na 

-Maine 

MarTnd 

Mass... 

Mich.. 

.M in’sota 
Miss.. 

M issouri 
Mont'na 
Nehrska 
X evada. 
X 1 lamp 
N .Jersv. 
N.Mex. 
X. V. 

X . ( ar. 

< >hio.. . . 

()regon 
Penn... 
K. Isl’nd 
S. Car. 
Tenn.. 
Texas. 

I tali 
\ erm’nt 
Y irginia 
Wash’tn 
W.V’irg. 
W’scosn 
W v’mng 


1,262,794 
40.441 
802,564 
864,686 
1 94,649 
622,683 
135,180 
146,654 
177.008 

267.351 

1.539,048 
32.611 
3.078,769 
1.978.362 
1.624,620 
995.966 
t ,6)48.708 
940, 1 03 
648,945 

934i 6 3- 
1,783,012 
1 -636,331 
780,806) 

1 * 1 3 1 - 59 - 
2.168,804 

39 -'T 
4 5--4331 
62.265 
546.984 1 
1,130.983 
118.430 
5,083,810 
1.400,047 
3.198.239, 

174-767; 

4.282.786' 

276.528! 

995,622 

1 -542-463! 

1.592.574 
143.906] 
332.2861; 
1.512,806) 

75 d-c 
618.443 
1.315.480 
20.776 


Will T K. 

color’d 

X ATIV K. 

FORK' (j N 

.M A LES. 

l'E.M AI.Ks 

6)62.328 

600,249 

1 - 2 53 - 121 

9 76.3 

622 .S90 

639,904 

35 - 1 78 

138! 

2 4 - 4 19 

16,022 

2S.202 

I2 * 2 39 

591,611 

210.62 I 

79’,269 

IO.295 

4(6,383 

386,181 

76)7.266) 

6>,i6S 

572,006) 

292,6)80 

518,271 

346,415 

191.45 2 

2 -459 

154,869 

39./80 

1 2 9 - 47 1 

65,178 

610,884 

11.428 

49 2 -8 79 

I29.S04 

305,886) 

316.797 

1 33- 1 7 7 

38 i 

83-387 

51.793 

S2.302 

52,818 

120,198 

26.45c 

137-1S2 

9 - 47 2 

74-153 

72,501 

118.236 

59 - 57 ^ 

160.523 

17 - 11.5 

83.594 

94.044 

141.83 2 

'-’5-464 

2 5 7-631 

9.7 20 

135-393 

131.958 

814.251 

7 2 4,68 5 

1 - 5 2 8-733 

10.315 

76)1,184 

777.864 

29,011 

58 

22,629 

9.9S2 

. 21,818 

IO - 79 ) 

3 ° 3- I 74 

46-248 

-’.495.177 

583.59-2 

1.587-434 

1 . 491.336 

1,909.094 

38.098 

1. 843.597 

143-765 

1.010,676 

967,6)86 

1.614,078 

9-443 

1 -363. • 5 2 

!. 261.488 

848,234 

776,386 

952.066 

43 - (K / 

SS6,26i 

1 109.705 

536-7 2 5 

459 - 2 4 i 

1.377,187 

217,461 

1.589.237 

59 - 47 1 

832,676 

• 816,032 

455,007 

483-794 

885,964 

5 - 4-139 

46)8,833 

471.270 

646,905 

1.418 

590.076 

58.869 

3 2 4*084 

3 2 4 - 8 i 6 

724-718 

209,897 

851,984 

82,6)48 

462,114 

472 . 6)28 

1.76)4,004 

18,411 

1- 339 - 9 1 9 

443-°93 

858,475 

9 2 4-538 

1.614,078 

H-986 

1-’47.985 

388.446 

S62.376I 

774-055 

776.940 

i -555 

513,107 

1 267.699 

419,262! 

361.544 

479-371 

650.337 

1.122.424 

9,16)8 

567,137 

564-45. 

2.023.568 

145-046 

1.957.564 

211.240 

!,127,424 

1-041,-80 

35 - 4-*-6 

2S8 

2 7.64 2 

11.515 

28,l8o 

10,977 

449.806 

2 -5 76 

355-°43 

97.390 

2 49* 2 75 

203,158 

53-574 

465 

36,623 

25.642 

4 2 - 1 1 3 1 

20,252 

346,264 

646 

300,961 

' 46.023 

! 7 0 -575 

176,409 

14x41.947 

3 s - 79 r 

909.598 

221,587 

559*823 

57 M 6 o 

1 oS. 127 

64S 

108,498 

9-93 2 

63-75 1 

54-679 

5,017.116 

64.969 

3 -87 2 -3 7 2 

1.211.438 

2.506,283 

- - 4 // ,52 7 

' 86,7.478 

531-351 

1-396.368 

3 - 6>79 

688,203 

711,844 

3.118.344 

79*095 

2.803.496 

394-743 

1,614,167 

1.584,074 

16)3,087 

486; 

1 44 - 3 2 7 

40,044 

103,388 

71.379 

4,197,106 

85 -34 2 

3 - 6 ) 95- 2 53 

587 -535 

146.6,3 2 

2,146,151 

269,903 

6.503 

202,598 

73-930 

103.388 

1 43-40 5 

391- 22 4 

604,275 

987,981 

7.641 

490,469: 

5 0 5 -i 53 

1,159,120 

4 ° 2 - 99 »i 

j 1.52 5,881 

16.582 

769-374 

773,089 

1,197,499 

594.006 

1 1.478,058 

114.516 

838,715 

753.855 


142-580 

351--43 
880.981 

67-549 

592.606) 
1.309622 

19.436 


2°4 

1,032 

651-573 

375 

25,806 

--7-4 

-99 


99-9741 

291.540. 

1 - 498- 1 39 
59 - 2 591 
6)00.2 14! 
910.0651 

H-943; 


43-93 2 

40,946 

14.667 

15.861 

18.228 

4 ° 5 - 4'7 

5-845 


74 - 47 ° 

166,888 

745 ) 8.39 
45-977 
314-479 
6)80,41 ()j 

14.151 


TOT \l. 50.I 52.86/) 45,404.876 6.577.15 1143.475.506161,677.560 


1 1-2 5 - 5 5 2 - 5 ^*— 1 2 


69-436 

165,598 
76)6,96*7 
2 9 -1 43 
3 ° 5 -964 
635-374 

6,637 

4.632,284 




















10G 


A MANT.\L OF UEOORAPMY. 


27. Occupation:—About five-sixths of the inhabitants are en^ag- 
ed in agriculture. Manufacturing, mining and commerce, employ 
many thousands of men and women. Every body,'as a rule, is 
engaged in some useful occupation and beggars so common in 
oriental countries, are rarely seen. 

28. Language:—The English is the prevailing language every¬ 
where, bufin many parts there is a large intermixture, of Ger¬ 
mans who still use their native tongue. In Louisiana the French 
language is spoken to some extent, and in the territory acquired of 
Mexico the Spanish is used. 


29. Government:—Th c government of the United States is a 
federal republic, composed of 3S states, 10 territories and 
th- Disti ict of Columbia. Each state is independent in its local 
affairs, and its government is patterned after that of the general 
government. 

0 a 

The government of the Um'tid States having been treated under the 
chapter on government, it will not be necessary to repeat if here. 

. U>; Education:—This great instrument of human improvement 
IS highly appreciated, and National Education is regarded, in all 
the states, as an object.of first consideration. A system of free 
schools exists in all states, and colleges and seminaries are more 
numerous than in any other part of the world. 


.■> 


Religion:—All religions arc tolerated in the United States 
and every person is at liberty to worship God according to the 
dictates of his own conscience. The most numerous persuasions 
.11 e the Baptist,s Methodists, Presbyterians, and Congre^ational- 
ists. 1 here are also many Roman Catholics, Episcopalians, Un- 
ivei salists, Lutherans, Moravians, &c. to which mav be added the 
sect called the Jfor/nons. 


STATISTICS. 


1 > i-: 


Methodists. 3.800,0001 

Baptists. 2,389,000! 

Presbyterians. '581,000' 

C o n g rega t io n al i sts 
Lutherans..... 


384,000 

738,000 


.mix st’rs. dex'mixt'x, 

M EM HER S. 

35,500 Rom.Cath'lk 

1,000.000 

i/.160 Disc of LYst 

60O.OOO 

5 , mo j Epis.Pr'tst n 1 

343,000 

3,580 Mormon 

100,000 

3.300 (JcAVS 

300,000 


Cities: 


- '“es: i hose lire already numerous and some o 
among the most populous in the world. The following is 


ST KS. 

4,000 

3 j 5 °° 

3,400 

U 5 

US 

them 
a list 










A MAM’AL Ml-' 4iKO<;itAPIIY. 


107 


ot the leading- cities of the United State 
to the nearest thousand. acordin<»- to the 

0 

# 

‘s, with their population 
last census 1880 . 

X A M KS. 

NO. N A >1 K 

. 

No. NAME. 

No. 

New York .. . . . 

1,206,001 \ lleghan v .... 


70,004 "1 .Paul 

4 1.000 

Philadelphia. . . . 

847,004 I ndiannpolis 


r.j.tiOC Lawrence 

. 1,000 

Brooklyn. ... 

5H7.004 Uichmond 


154 .OOO Davton 

:!0,ooo 

4 Inca go.. . 

Boston . . 

5o:;,00l New Haven 

B7<*« 0 < >|) Lowell 

. 

H.O0O Lvnn .. . 

,M mhi \ 1 lanla 

ns .000 

st. I.ouis 

1{7> 1 ,()0i) w oreester. 


*»s.oo< Denver 

.. :!i.,ooo 

Baltimore . . 

5W2.000 I’rov. .. 


57.000 Oakland. 


< incinnat! ... 

2.>i 5,000 Kansas City 


•45.04 « Ftiea. 

:i4.ooo 

San francisfo. 

2B4.00O ( ,'amhridge 


>:{,000 Portland . 

.. :;4.noo 

New Orleans 
( Cleveland 

21(>,flrtO Syracuse 

1 <» 0.000 1 ulutnhus 

. 

• 2,000 Memphi- 
i*> (H)0 Spri 11 < r 15 >• h 1 

:!4,ooo 
aa.oio 
. :t:5,noo 

•t-> nnn 

Pittsburgh 

Buffalo 

17)0,000 l*at terson 


51.000 Manchester 
•0 non st .I... a> 1111 

Washington 

147,000 ( harlc-tr ii 


7)0.000 4 ira ml It. a pids. 

::2.ooo 

Newark . 

] ;!(i,000 Fa 11 It i ver. 


40.000 \\ heeling 

ai.ooo 

Louisville.. 

•Jersev Citv. 

124. (inn Minneapolis 
121,000 sera nton 


47,OOi Mohih*. 

40 00< 1 1 m!><> k4‘n 

:: l,(H*o 

•tl nnn 

Detroit 

110,000 N ash vi 1 le 


40,004 11 a rri.-dm r** - 

:tl (inn 

Milwaukec 

110,000 Beading 



:;i on » 

Providence. 



10,4)04' ( )maha 

:!l,O0o 

Alhanv . 

01.000 Wilmington. 


i:t.< 00 

lthoehester. 

sO.OOO (’amden 


.2,000 



HISTORY. 


DISCOYEH I ES. 

i. In the year 1498, Sebastian Cabot, an Italian in the employ of Holland, 
discovered \ irginia. In 1520, \'m azani, also, an Italian, sent out bv 
France, discovered the coast of North ( arolina. lie landed also near New 
York, and at New Port. In 1528. Narvaey, a Spaniard, discovered and took 
possession of Florida, in behalf of the king of Spain. The Hudson river was 

0 

discovered by Hrurv Zitu/son, an Fnglish navigator, sent hither by some 
I hitch speculators. 


S ETTLEM ENTS. 

2. Various attempts w ere made to affect settlements ,in this quarter, but 
thev'all proved unsuccessful till 1607. At that time, about 100 persons ar¬ 
rived from England, and founded the colony of y<uncsiozvn in Virginia. 
This was.the tirst English settlement within the t inted States. New York 
was settled bv the Dutch in 1614 ; Massachusetts by the Puritans, in 1620 ; 
Rhode Island by Roger Williams, in 1636; and Connetieut about the same 
time; Georgia, the last of the thirteen original colonies, was settled in 1 732. 

OlildtX OF THE EXITED STATES. 

3. The I’nited States had their origin in the thirteen original colonies, 
which combined, in 1775, against their mother country, and alter a desperate 
struggle of eight years, achieved their independence.. The tirst battle of the 













































A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


108 


revolutionary war was fought at Lexington, Mass., April, 19, 1775 ' " here the 
-enemy received a signal defact. 

CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTION. 

4. About the year 1764, the British government began to .impose severe 
and oppressive taxes upon the English colonies. The people remonstrated, 
;and sent petitions to both parliament and king, but without effect. 

THROWING OVERBOARD THE TEA, ETC. 

In 1773, the people being angry at the tax imposed upon tea, refused to 
let that article be landed from the British ships. In Boston a party of men, 
disguised as Indians, went on board some vessels in the harbor, and emptied 
340 chests into the water. The port of Boston was now closed by British 
parliament. This act brought on a crisis and the colonies prepared for war. 

CLOSE OF THE AVAR. 

6.. In Oct. 19, 1781, Gen. Cornwallis, the British commander, surrendered 
•to Gen. Washington at Yorktown. After this event there was little fighting on 
• either side. In November, 17S2, preliminary articles were signed at Pari> 
between the agents of Great Britain and America' which recognized the Unit¬ 
ed States as a free, sovereign and independent nation. 

THE CONSTITUTION. 

7. Until the adoption of the present constitution, the government was 
.administered under the Articles of Confederation , but this system was found 
•imperfect and insufficient.' A convention was therefore called, which met at 

Philadelphia, in May, 17S7, and, after a session of four months, they formed 
and recommended to the people the present excellent constitution. This was 
adopted bv the states and George Washington was elected first President of 
.the Union, 

OTHER EVENTS OF OUR HISTORY. 

8. In the year 1800, the seat of government was removed from Philadel¬ 
phia, to Washington, which has since been the capital of the' United States. 

J n April 1S03, an immense territory called Louisiana, was purchased of France 
for ,$15,000,000. On the 18th of June. iSt 2, Congress declared war against 
Great Britain, which lasted about 18 months and the British Lion had to Yield 
a second time to American valor. 

Immediately after this war, our government deemed it necessarv to send a 
squadron into the Mediterranean, to chastise Algiers and the other Barbarv 
States, which had committed piracies upon our commerce. 

In 1S1S, Florida zoos obtained by treaty from Spain. I.a Fa fare tie, a brave 
.and generous Frenchman, who had served in our armies during the Revolu- 


A MAM’AL OK O K<)(i I! A 1’IIV. 


0 


10U J 


tion, \ isitcd oui country in 1824 and was everywhere received with acclama¬ 
tions! ot welcome by the people. 

During James K. Polk's administration, war was waged with Mexico, 
which commenced in 1S46, and ended in 184S; and the extensive territories ot 
New Mexico, A rizona. < alifornia and some other portions of land, were ceded 
to the l nited States. I lie annexation of Texas, in 1 S'4 ^, w as the imme¬ 
diate cause of war. 

In the winter ot 1861, the II ar of the Rebellion broke out and continued 
tor tour years. Slavery w hich had been the cause of the war. was abolished. 

Ahiuham Lincoln was assassinated on the 14th of April 1S63, and on the 
3rd ot dune 1SS1, James A. Garfield met a Similar fate, two of our most her 
loved presidents. 

PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 


George Washington 

John Adams. 

J homas Jefferson. 

James Madison .... 

James Monroe . 

John Quincy Adams. . 

Andrew Jackson. 

Martin Van Burcn . 
William Henry Harrison 

John Tvler., 

James K. Polk. 

Zackary Taylor. 

Millard Fillmore. 

Franklin P ice. 

James Buchanan. 

Abraham Lincoln. 

A ndrew Johnson 

Ulysses S. Grant. 

Rutherford B. Hayes 

James A. Garfield. 

< Tester A . A rthur. 


1789 to 1797—8 years.- 
. 1797 to 1801—4 “ 

. 1801 to i 8(X4~8 
1809 to 1817—8 
1817 to 1825—8 
. 1S23 to 1829—4 
. 1829 to 1837 8 

1837 to 1841—4 
1841 to —1 month-’ 

.1841 to 1845—3yr. 11 “ 

.1845 to 1849—4 years 
.1849 to 1850—i vr.4 month 
1S50 to 1853—-vr. 8 
1853 to 1837 —4 years 
. 1857 to 1861—4 “ 

1S61 to 1865—41 r. 1 month 
1863 t° 1869—3 “11 ,k 
.1869 to 1877—8 years 
.1877 to 1881—4 
. 1881 to 6 months 

1881, present incumbent. 


\Y heat. 
Barley, 
Beck \v heat 
Corn, 

()ats, 

R ve, 


Rice, pounds, 110,131.000. 


STATISTICS OK IMJOI)l'< 

•ts, 1880. 


1.K.AI>1 \O STATUS IN <) R1 > K1«'. 

Is. 460,000,000. 

III. 

1 nd., ()., Mich., Minn. 

44,000,000. 

Col 

., N. Y., Wis., lo., Minn. 

I 2 , 000 , 000 . 

N. 

V., Pa., X. J„ Mieh., Mo. 

1.736.000,000. 

III. 

Ia , Mo., I nd.. \\ 

408,000, coo. 

Ill., 

la. X. V., Pa., Wis. 

20.(XX),00(>. 

Pa. 

. Ill., X. T.. Wis., ] nd. 

(XX). 

Ga. 

. Ala., Tex.. Miss., S. ('. 

2 28 .(XX). 

La 

, Ga., Tex., Fla., Ala. 

,000; lbs. 473,000.000. 

Kv 

. Ya., Pa., ( ).. Tenn. 


S. ( .. (ia.. La., N. C.. Mi SS, 


Bituminous coal, tons. 

41 ,000,oco. 

Pa., 

Ill., 

C).. Md 

Sugar, hogsheads, i 

79,000. 

La., 

Tex. 

, Fla.. 

M classes, gallons. 

1 6-573 • 

La., 

(1 a., 

Fla., 1 

Gold. Total Product 

. $36,000,000. 

< al. 

, Xe\ 

., 1 )ak 

Silver, “ 

37,700,000, 

Col. 

. Ne\ 

.. U. T 


























no 


A 31 AN UAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


CHAPTER IV. 

NEW ENGLAND.—MAP EXERCISES. 


CAPES. 

J. Cod, Ann, Elizabeth. 


BAYS. 

Massachusetts, Cape Cod, Buzzards, Narragansett, Qiio- 
hog. Casco, Damariscotta, Muscongus, Penobscot? Isle an Haut 
i>lue Hill, Frenchmans, Machias, Passamaquoddv. 

SOUNDS. 

3 Xantucket, Vineyard, Long Island. 

islands. 

4. Block, Rhode Island, Nantucket, Marthas'Vineyard Mt 
Desert, Deer, Swans. J A ' 


5. Cape Cod. 


'PENINSULAS. 


MOUNTAIN RANGES. 

6. Green, White, Hoosic, Laconic, Height of Land. 


M O U N T A IN P E A K S. 


, 7 - Washington, Adams, Mars Hill, Katahdin, 
pee, Monadnock, Kersarge, Mansfield, Camels Hump 
Ascutney, Killington, Tom, Holyoke, Wachusett. 


vSuna- 

Hollv, 


LAKES. 

S. Moosehead, Chesuncook, Milinokctt, Chamberlain, Grand 
vSchoodie. Cleveland, Moosetockniaguntic, Umbago<n Seba«-o’ 
vSquam, Vmmpiseogee, Sunapee, Memphremagog, Champlain? ’ 

RIVERS. 


9. St. John, St. Croix. Penobscot, Kennebec, Androscoggin 
Saco, Piscataqua, Memmac, Thames, Connecticut. Housatonic 
Union, Lamoille. ’ 


c rr 1 e s. 


Augusta, Portland, Bangor, Bath, Brunswick. Saco, Con 



A MANUAL OK UKOflft A Pli Y. 


Ill 


cord. Portsmouth, Manchester, Nashua, Ilanover, Montpelier, 
Burlington, Rutland, Boston, Cambridge, Plymouth, Lowell, 
Lawrence, Springfield. Worcester, Lynn, Salem,'Taunton, Provi¬ 
dence, Newport, Hartford, New Haven, New London. Stoning- 
ton, Bridgeport, Stamford. 

n E L A TIVE PO SIT ION. 

ii. In what direction is Boston from Hartfoid ? from Provi¬ 
dence t \\ orcester ? Burlington ? Concord ? Augusta ? Cape Cod? 
Cape Annr 


12. Trace a water route from Boston to Providence : to Hart¬ 
ford ; Burlington ; Concord ; Bangor ; Quebec ; Buffalo. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 


13. \\ hat is the latitude of each of the capitals ? the longitude 

of the same? By the scale of miles, what is the distance of Port¬ 
land from Cincinnati ? from Montpelier? Albany? Quebec. What 
is the difference of time between Boston and B angor? Boston and 

Albanv? Bound each of the New England states. 

- © 


DESCRIPTION. 

POLITICAL DIVISION'S. 


. STATES. NO. OF CO’s. STATES. NO. OF CO'S, 

Maine. . . . . 16 Massachusetts . 14 

New Hampshire. 10 Rhode Island. 5 

Vermont.. 14 j Connecticut. . S 

POSITION. 

2. The New England States occupy the north-eastern portion 
of the United States, and are bounded on the north by the Do¬ 
minion of Canada ; on the east by New Brunswick and the At¬ 
lantic Ocean ; on the south by the Atlantic and Long Island 
sound; and on the west by New York and Quebec. 

LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE. 

3. They lie between 41 and 47^ degrees north latitude and be¬ 
tween 67 and 73J degrees west longitude. 










112 


A MANUAL OF O KOOK A 1’IIY. 


EXTENT. 


STATUS. 


Maine. 

New Hampshire 

Vermont. 

Massachusetts .. 
Rhode Islam!... 

( onnecticut. 


CROSS AKKA. 


'fl'AT'H SritF'Cl I iANI) Sl'KF’t 


513,040! 
9,8051 
9,5651 
8.315] 
1 , 250 ' 
4,990I 


. 14 ; 

80 ; 

lot 

o-r 

T(>j 

145 


29.89.') 
9,005 
9, i.85 
8 , 011 ) 
J ,085 
4,Si5 


S1ZK AS COM - 

OAK’l) with <>. 


1-5 

1-10 


1 lie following is a table ot distances from Boston 


Quebec. 

Montreal. 

.400 

. 800 

Portland. 

< .oneoru. 


...110 

(I 5 

Houston. 

. 85(1 

Montpelier. 


. . 100 

Bangor. 

Augusta. 

. 280 

.108 

11 <11 l lOrtf . 

New Haven 
Providence 


. . .134 
.40 


Cl IA K ACTE It 1ST K S. 

6. These states have thus been characterised: 

Xew England hath a climate cold. 

A rugged soil and mountains bold; 

Hut vet her hills are tilled with care; 

Her villages are bright and fair, 

1 he church s spire decks every scene, 

The scboolhouse every village^green, 

While busy factories ply the wheel, 

And commerce speeds the adventurous keel. 

The fisherman defies the gale; 

The bold harpooner strikes the whale; 

The hunter roams the iorest track; 

And each his gathered spoil brings back 
To 7 ankec I*and, his cherished home, 

Hlest with his store, no more to roam. 

COAST. 

7 * This is much indented by numerous bays, furnishing many 
miles ot navigable waters, and jjreat facilities for commerce. 
Maine stretches from northeast to southwest 200 miles but. includ¬ 
ing the indentations, presents a shore line of 2500 miles, and because 
of her numerous inlets is called “hundred harbored Maine” 
Massachusetts bay is the scene of active shipping enterprise. 

islands. 

S. Marthas \ inevard and Nantucket are the largest islands; 
they have a sandy soil. Mount Desert, south of Maine, is noted 
ioi its beautiful scenery, and is a favorite summer resort. Rhode 
Island, in the southern part of Narragansett bay, is noted for its 
extreme fertility. 


SURFACE. 

9. T his is greatly diversified. In the interior it is mountainous, 
with narrow vales between. The land along the sea shore pre¬ 
sents an irregular surface of hills and ridges, with flats of moderate 



















A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


113 

extent. The numerous lakes and ponds of New England form a 
charming leature of the scenery. S m a 

MOUNTAIN RANGES. . 

the>J‘:r^ ateS / re crosset ’- »>°ng ‘he western boundary by 
the Green Mountain range, lhe Taconic and floosie ranges 
trend across the western part of Massachusetts. The latter is 
noted tor the celebrated iloosic tunnel, about five miles long, on 
the Boston and Albany railroad. 



MOUNTAIN 

PEAKS. 


11. The foliowinor 

O 

are the principal peaks: 


NAME .• 

HEIGHT. 

NAME. 

HEIGHT. 

Mars Hill. . . 


Mansfield 


Katahdin.. . 


Killington. . 

Camel’s Hump... 


Washington 

Adams.. . . 


4,188 


Saddle 


Jefferson. . . 

* * ’ .’*/ J T* 

Wachusett. 



VALLEYS. 


12. lhe Connecticut valley is the most extensive and fertile in 
New England. The valley of the Merrimac consists of sandv 
plains covered with pines. Some of the river valleys of Maine 
are broad, except near the sea. The Atlantic coast plain is from 
50 to 75 miles wide. 

NATURAL CURIOSITIES. 

13. The mountains, waterfalls, wild forests, and myriads of 
lakes, and cool summer climate, make Maine an attractive place 
for tourists. The bold and rugged coast and picturesque islands 
are well known to artists. New Hampshire, on account of its 
beautiful scenery, is called the Switzerland of America. The 
White Mountains and vicinity are especially characterized. Ver¬ 
mont and Massachusetts are noted for their scenery. From Mount 
Wachusett, a fine view is presented ; Tom, Holyoke and Saddle 
peaks are well known summer resorts. The Ice Hill, a narrow 
and deep ravine of great wildness, in Stockbridge county, is a 
place where the ice remains during the whole year. In New 
Marlborough, there is a rock of 30 or 40 tons weight, so nicely 
balanced that it can be moved with a finger. 
















A 31 ANTAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


m 


LAKES. 


14. The followinglist contains the principal lakes: 


LAKES. 

L’xqi'n 

15 R DTH 

REMARKS. 

Moosehead. 

35 

IO 

Deep and navigable. On the west side is 
Mt. Kineo 1200 feet high. 

Chesuncook.. . 

20 

2 

Contains some fine scenery. 

Mernphremagog 

3° 

1 to 4 

It is much visited by tourists. 

Winnipiseogee .■ 

1 22 

• J 

Deep and surrounded bv very beautiful 
mountain scenery. 

Umbagog. .... 

. 12 

1 1° 4 

Drained by the Androscoggin river. 

•Champlain. 

100 

1 to 14 

600 feet deep and remarkable for grand 




and beautiful scenery. 

fSchoodic. , . . 



A series of lakes in the southeastern part. 
Empties its waters into Casco Bay. 
Contains excellent salmon and trout. 

Sebago. 

12 

s 

Grand.. 

-5 

4 


Maine is said to contain no less than 1700 lakes having an area greater than 
one square mile. 


RIVERS. 

15. One remarkable feature of New England states, is the num* 
berof streams of water. Nearly all afford valuable water power. 
It issaid no other river in the world drives as manv factories and 
mills as the Merrimac. The scenery in many instances is ex¬ 
tremely picturesque. 


RIVERS. I 

LENGTH AREA BASIN 

MILES OF NAVIGATION. 

Connecticut. . . 
Merrimac. 

350 10,600 
1 5° 

3°°i 

200J 

75 

60, to Hartford. 

12. to Haverhill. 

60, to Bangor. 

So, to Waterville. 

Penobscot. 

Kennebec. 

8t. Croix. 


SOIL. 

16. Much oi the soil is good^ yet it requires diligent cultivation 
to procure good crops. The river valleys are fertile. The eastern 
part of Massachusetts has a sandy and strong soil, and is not at 
all adapted to profitable farming. 

17. The climate is severe, and it is necessary to make careful 
preparations for the long winters. North of the 45th parallel 
little can be produced from the soiT on account of the rigid cold. 
The indifference of the soil and the severity of the climate have 
compelled the people to be industrious, frugal, and enterprising. 

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIONS. 

18. The leading product of agriculture in New England is 
grass for grazing and hay ; besides this, wheat, Indian corn, oats, 
barley, potatoes, N'c. are produced in considerable quantities! 


























A VFANTAL OF (JEO(.JRAPHV. 


115 


Horses, cattle, sheep, and hogs, are raised in great numbers, 
ihe chief truits are apples, pears, peaches, plums, strawberries, 
currents, &c. 


MINERALS, 

19. Iron is abundant in Connecticut, Vermont, and Maine 
Copper and zinc are found in various places, chiefly in Vermont 
and Connecticut. Coal exists, but in limited quantities and of in- 
tenor quality. 

Gianite, marble, and limestone are scattered profusely over al¬ 
most this entire section ; the former exists in such quantities in 
-New Hampshire that it is called the Granite State. Oil-stone and 
Slate-stone, as well as stone from which grind-stones are made 
are found at various points. 

.MANUFACTURES. 

20 . These are varied and ot great value. They consist chiefly 
ot cotton goods, woolen goods, furniture, wooden ware, leather, 
boots and shoes, paper, and paper articles, fire-arms, musical in¬ 
struments, hardware, machinery, clocks and watches, ships, maple 
sugar, butter, cheese, etc. 

COMMERCE. 


2i. The commerce of the New England states is very exten¬ 
sive ; Boston is the leading port. The exoorts are grains, cattle, 
floui, beef, poik, ice, granite and manufactured goods ; the imports 
are wool, hides, rags, European wares, tropical fruits, fish, fire¬ 
wood, coal, eggs, gypsum, potatoes, wheat, and flour, <S:c. Mass¬ 
achusetts ranks as the fourth state in the value of her commerce. 


I XTERX A L IM PROVE M E XTS. 


22. Many important Tailway lines run in all directions. Mass¬ 
achusetts has more miles of railway in proportion to her area, 
than any other state in the Union. Public buildings of all kinds 
are numerous and many of them costly and eleo-ant? 


Maine, 

Neve Hampshire, 
Vermont, 
Massachusetts, 
Rhode Island, 
Connecticut, 
TOTAL. 


miles of Railway. x oq, 

, . , . s 97 

; ; ; .s 3 6 

“ 2 t 2 5° 

. 153 

. 3 1 

- - 6,161 


ANIMALS. 

-3* In the wild and uninhabited parts the native animals arc 











116 


A MANUAL OF OROGRAPHY. 


still to be found ; viz: The bear, deer, fox, wolf, wildcat, raccoon^ 
groundhog, skunk, weasel, beaver, etc. 

INHABITANTS. 


24. The people of these six states are almost wholly of English 
descent. Their manners and customs are essentially English, 
though a tinge of Puritanism still lingers among them. The teim 
Yankee , which appears, originally, to have been an imitation of 
the Indian’s Yangees (English), is, in this country, applied to the 
the people of New England. In Europe, all our people are desig¬ 
nated by this title. 


25. The population of these states is as follows: 


STATES 

Maine. 

New] lamps hire.. 

Vermont. 

Massachusetts 

Rhode Island. 

Connecticut. 


POP.IS70 

pop.iSSo 

white ;c'l’rd 

pop. to sq. mi 

527,000 

649,000 

647,000 1,450 

1 

318.000 

347,000 

346,000) 685 

Oo 

CO 

331,000 

33 2,ooo 

33.1,000 1,000 

26 ;W 

1,415,000 

C 7 S 3 > 000 

1,776,000119,000 

lS2 

2 I 7,000 

277,000 

270,000) 6,500 

164 

53 7,ooo 

623,000 

61 1,000 I 1,500 

ISO 


OCCUPATIONS. 


26. The coast being indented with numerous harbors, the in¬ 
habitants have, therefore, been invited to maritime enterprise* 
They are largely engaged in the cod, mackerel , and whale fisheries 
and their commerce is very extensive. Their manufactures,- too, 
are numerous and on a liberal scale. Quarrying and gatheringof 
ice are leading pursuits. Thus industry has conquered the ob¬ 
stacles of nature and climate, and scattered wealth and plenty over 
a region of comparative sterility. Though the soil in most parts 
is naturally poor, it has been enriched by careful cultivation, and 
the traveler can hardly find in any land a people living in a state 
of equal comfort. If there are not many who- are very rich, 
there are few who are poor. 


LANGUAGE. 


27. 1 he English has always been the language of the people* 
with little intermixture of foreign tongues. 

o o 

EDUCATION. 

28. New England has long been celebrated for its colleges and 
schools. Every person has the means of obtaining a good Eng¬ 
lish education ; and very few natives of the soil are unable to 
read and write with facility. 




















A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


117 


The following is a list of the leading colleges with statistics 
from the latest authority: 


NAME. LOCATION'. DENOMIXATN 

Harvard.Cambr’ge Mas. None 

^ a le.N . Haven Con (’ongregational 

BrownUniv’rs. Provid’nceR. I. Baptist 

Amherst.Ymherst Mas Congregational 

Wes Ivan Un. MiddlYn Con.Methodist 

Bowdoin.Brunswi k M e. Congregational 

Williams..Wilimst’nMas. “ 

Dartmouth. . . . Hanover N. II. 

Un. of Vermont Burlington V.T None 
Middleburg... Middleb’rgY.T Congregational 

Bates.LewistownMe. Baptist 


N’TSvi 

al. in lib. 1 

PO*X DEI). 

6 37 

134,000 

1638 

5 * 7 : 

86,000 

1700 

224, 

42,000 

J 7 6 5 

2681 

2S,000 

1S21 

190' 

22,000 

1831 


35,000 

179 s 

119: 

15 ,coo 

lS 93 

264, 

33,000; 

1770 

47 

15,000 

1S01 

54 

12,000 

1797 

164; 

5,000, 

1S63 


R ELIGIOX. 


29. T he people ot this section are in a high degree moral and 
religions . Churches are numerous, and the sabbath is strictly 
observed. Charitable societies of various kinds are common, and 
lyceums for lectures and public instructions are found in the prin¬ 
cipal towns, and, in many villages. The temperance societies 
have done much toward checking the baneful use ot intoxicating 
drinks. The leading religious sects are the Congregationalists, 
Baptists, and Methodists. 


CITIES AND TOWN'S. 

30. Though the natural aspect of New England is rough and 
forbidding, industry and taste have dotted it' over with cheerful 
and thriving towns and villages. Boston is the great commercial 
emporium ot New England : it contains many things of interest. 
Because ot its literary institutions, it is sometimes called th a Ath¬ 
ens oj America. Lowell and Lawrence on the Merrimac arc im¬ 
portant cotton manufacturing centres. I^ynn is noted for its 
manufacturing of shoes, Springfield for paper and firearms. 
Burlington for its lumber. Rutland for its marble and manufac¬ 
turing. Portland for its trade. Bangor for its commerce and 
shipbuilding. 

Newport is a favorite summer resort, its climate is commended 
for its mildness and equability. 

Providence , the second city of New England, is delightfully 
situated around a little lake called “the Cove.” It is the seat of 
Brown University, and contains one of the largest and finest ho¬ 
tels in the United States. 

New Bedford is noted for the elegance of its private residences 
and as one of the richest cities in proportion to its population of 
any in the Union. This city has been engaged in the whale fish- 













118 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


cries more largely than any other city in the world, but the indus¬ 
try has declined somewhat. 

Many towns on Long Island Sound are also extensively engag¬ 
ed in the fisheries ; among these are Stamford* Norwalk, Bridge¬ 
port, Savbrook, etc. 

Population of principal cities. 


CITIKS. 

POP. 

' 

POP. 

CITIKS. 

POP, 

MAINE. 

34,000 

Burlington. 

11,000 

RHODE ISLAND. 


Portland. 

St, Albans. . 

7,000 

P roridence . 

105,000 

Lewis. 

19,000 

Montpelier . 

3,000 

Pawtucket. 

19,000' 

Bangor. 

Biddeford. 

17,000 

13,000 

MASSACHUSETTS. 

Boston . 


Near port . 

CONNECTICUT. 

10,000 

Auburn... 

10,000 

Lowell 

59..>00 

New Haven. 

03,000' 

Augusta . 

NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

0,000 

Worcester . . .... 

Cambridge.. 

58,000 

ju non 

Hartford .. 

Bridgeport. 

43.000 
29,000 
or neft 

tvt a neb ester 




Concord . 

14,000 

13,000 

13,000 

10,OOC 

Lawrence. 

39,000 

Waterburg 

20,000 

Nashua. . 

Lynn.. 

38,000 
33 000 

Meriden' 

18,000 

1 )over. 

Springfield. 

N nr wo l k 


Portsmouth. 

VERMONT. 

Salem. 

New Bedford. 

28,000 

27.000 

New Britians. 

14,000 

Rutland. 

12,000 

Holyoke. 

22,000 




HISTORY. 


SETTLEMENT. 

31. The history of New England affords many passages of deep interest. 
It was first settled by some English people called Puritans, who tied hither 
from religious persecutions. They landed at Plymouth. December 22, 1620, 
and thus laid the foundation of what has since become the state of J fassachu- 
sciis. 

CONNECTICUT ANI) RHODE ISLAND. 

32. The first settlements in Connecticut were made by emigrants from 
Massachusetts, in 1636. Roger Williams, a Baptist minister, made the first 
settlement in Rhode Island\ in this year. 

The other portions of New England became gradually occupied’ chiefly by 
people from New England, or by the descendants of the earlier settlers of this 
quarter. Maine and New 1 Iampshireoriginally were a part of Massachusetts. 

INDIAN WARS. 

33. For a time the colonists were at peace with the Indians; but at length 
Avar broke out. On several occasions the colonists came near being exter¬ 
minated. In 1675 a celebrated chief named Philip , stirred up the savage 
tribes, and for three years a bloody contest was maintained. But the whites 
at last prevailed, and the Indians gradually disappeared from the land of their 
fathers. 

REVOLUTION ARY WA R. 

34. A century alter Philip s Avar the Revolution commenced with the 
battle of Lexington, and the celebrated contest on Bunker 11111 followed, June 

















































> MANUAL OF fJKOG It A I’M V. 


119 


» x 7» *775- Throughout the conflict with Great Britain, which lasted eight 
years, and which resulted in the independence of the United States, the people 
of New England bore an active and important part. 

SETTLEMENT OF OTHER STATES. 

35* i he inhabitants ot New England have also largely contributed to the 
settlement ot the more western states. A considerable portion of New York, 
Ohio, Indiana and Illinois were first occupied by people from Connecticut and 
Massachusetts. 


THE MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES. 


MAP EXERCISES. 

i. Capes. —Henry. Charles, Henlopen, May. Sandy Ilook. Mon- 
tauk Point. . 

Gulfs and Bays. —New York, Delaware, Chesapeake, Raritan, 
Newark. 

Channels and Sounds. —The Narrows, East River, Lon" 
Island. 

Islands. —Long Island, Coney, Governors. 

Mountain Ranges.— Blue, Blue Ridge, Alleghany, Adirondack, 
Catskill, Cumberland, South, Rich, Chestnut Ridge, Laurel 
Ridge. 

Mountain Peaks. —Marcy, McYntire, Peaks of Otter. 

Lakes. —Champlain, George, Oneida, Skeneatelcs, Owasco, Ca¬ 
yuga, Seneca, Canandaigua, Chautauqua, Erie, Ontario, 
Otsego. 

Rivers. —Hudson, St. Lawrence, Black, Racket, Grass, Salmon, 
Oswego, Genesee, Susquehanna, North Branch, South 
Branch, Juniatta, Ohio, Alleghany, Monongahela, Great 
Kanawha, Big Sandy, Mohawk, Delaware, Schuylkill; Le¬ 
high, Potomac, Shenandoah, Rappahannock, York, James, 
Appomattox, Patuxent. 

Cities. —New York, Philadelphia, Brooklyn, Baltimore, Buffalo, 
Washington, Rochester, Oswego, Albany , Troy, Rome. 
Utica, Schenectady, Syracuse, Dunkirk, Watertown, Sing 
Sing, Hudson, Poughkeepsie, Newburg, West Point, Har¬ 
risburg, Reading, Lancaster, Pittsburgh, Alleghany, Erie, 
Oil City, Scranton, Easton, Trenton, Newark. Jersey City. 
Patterson, Camden, Princeton, Dover, Wilmington, New 
Castle, Annapolis , Frederick, Hagerstown, Cumberland, 
Harper's Ferry, Wheeling, Charleston, Parkersburg, Rich¬ 
mond, Fredericksburg, Norfolk, Petersburg, Charlottesville, 
Strasburg, Lexington, Lynchburg, Alexandria. 


120 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY 


Relative Position.— In what direction is Rochester from New 
York? from Buffalo? from Richmond? from Albany? from 
Baltimore? from Washington? from Harrisburg? from Wheel¬ 
ing? from Dover? from Norfolk? 

Travels.— What states would you cross in traveling by land 
from Richmond to Erie? to Dover? to Albany? to Parkers¬ 
burg? 

Trace 7 a water route from Washington to Baltimore; to 
Richmond; to Trenton; to Rome; to Rochester; to Warren, 
Miscellaneous.— W hat is the latitude and longitude of New 
York? of Philadelphia? 

Give the latitude of the capital of qach state. Give the 
longitude of the same. 

What is the difference in time between New York and 
Washington? between Washington and Wheeling? What 
is the altitude of the sun at noon in New York, on the ioth of 
May? on the 24th of February? 


DESCRIPTION. 

POLITICAL DIVISIONS. 

1. This section of the United States embraces New York, 
Pennsylvania, New Jersey. Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, West 
Virginia, and the District of Columbia. 

POSITION. 

2. The New England states and the Atlantic ocean are on the 
east; North Carolina and Tennessee on the south; Kentucky, 
Ohio, lakes Erie and Ontario on the west. 

LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE. 

< 

3- The Middle States lie between 26^° and 45 0 north; and 
extend from about 73W to 84° west longitude. 

4. These states have thus been characterized: 

The ^Middle States for wealth renowned, 

By golden harvests yearly crowned. 

Exhaustless mines within their breast, 

Favorites of nature stand confessed! 

Rich in themselves, still art hath made 
The world pays tribute to their trade; 

Rivers, canals and railroads pour 
Into their lap a golden store, 

While various seas rich burdens bear. 

To crowd their marts with all that’s rare. 





A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


121 


Extent, Etc,— 


New York. 

Pennsylvania. 

New Jersey. 

Delaware,.'. 

Maryland. 

Virginia.. 

"West Virginia.. 

District of Coliimbi. 

* Relative size, f 


io being 1. 


ARKA. 

* I 

POP. 1870. 

jpop. 1880.; 

PER CENT 


_1 



INCKE’SK 

47.620 

7-6 

4.383.000 

5.084,001 

16 

45,000 

1 1 - 8 ; 

3,522,000 

4,2*8.001 

21 1 , 

7,450 

3-19 

906.000 

1,131,000 

25 

1.960 

1-21 

125,000 

147.001! 

17 1-5 

9,St 0 

1-4; 

781.000 

935,001 

19 3 / 

40.125 

1 

1.225,000 

1,518,000' 

23*' 

24,650 

3-5 

442,000 

618,00 

40 

60 


132,000 

178,001 

35 


lo7 

95 

152 

95 
87 V 
2 .) 

5,966*, 


COAST. 


6. Uns ,s mostly low, sandy ancl level. Tlie principal bays 
are New \ ork, Raritan, Delaware and Chesapeake. The Dela¬ 
ware, fifty miles from its month, expands into a bav from ten to 
thirty miles, the navigation of which is rendered somewhat diffi¬ 
cult by shoals. The Atlantic shores of New Jersey, in some 
places, are covered with a fine, white sand, which form delightful 
drives and promenades, and make a solid floor to the scat it is 
this which has made its beaches renowned sea-bathing resorts 
The most celebrated are Long Branch, Cape May, and Atlantic 
City. 


CAPES. 

^ 7. All the capes have light-houses as safeguards to the mariner. 
Charles and Henry, at the entrance of the Chesapeake; and May 
and Ilenlopcn, at the cntiance ot Delaware bav, arc the principal 
capes. 

ISLANDS. 

8. Long Island is 120 miles long and 20 wide and it is noted 
for its orchards. Manhattan Island contains the citv of New 
York. It is 14 miles long and wide. Governor's Island is in 
the New York harbor and contains a fort called Columbus. 
Grand Island is in the Niagara River above the Falls. The 
Thousand Isles are at the lower end of lake Ontario and the head 
of the St. Lawrence River. There are about 1500 hundred of 
these, forming the most numerous collection of'islands in the 
world. Many of them have been purchased by wealthy people 
who have built elegant summer leskjences on them ; the scenery 
about them is grand. 


SURFACE. 

9. The Atlantic Coast Plain extends from the bay of New 
York, where it is only a few miles wide, to the south-west ; in 
lower Virginia it is 175 miles wide. The western fortiori ot this 
section, except Virginia, is generally level. The remainder is 
















122 


A MAXI'AL OF GEOURAPIIV. 


much broken and diversified by mountains and v alleys. Dismay 
Swamp is in the south-east corner of Virginia ; it is about 30 
miles long by 12 broad. 

. MOUNTAINS. 

10. The Allcghanies which extend to the width of two hun¬ 

dred miles in Pennsylvania, the Blue Ridge and Cumberland 
mountains in Virginia, are the principal chains. 5 

PEAKS. 

11. The peaks of Otter, 4,000 feet high, aie i n the Blue Ridge 
mountains ; Mount Marcy, in the Adirondack mountains, is 5,400 
feet high. 

N ATURAL curiosities. 

12. The Ralls of Niagara, which are paitly -in New York, 
form the most stupendous cataract in the world. 

They are divided by Goat Island into two divisions ; the American side is- 
about 1,000 feet wide and the ('anadian 2,000, and both plunge over rocks to 
the depth of 162 feet. The shock causes the earth to tremble for a consid¬ 
erable distance around, and a cloud of vapor rises over the spot, which is 
sometimes visible for sixty or seventy miles. 

The Ralls of Trenton 12 miles north of Utica are esteemed 
among the finest in the world. At Rochester the Genesee has a 
fall of 96 feet. Besides these there are numerous other cataracts 
scarcely less beautiful, in many different places. 

The lakes, George, Cayuga, Seneca, &c., are fine sheets of water, 
and renowned for the charming landscape along their banks. 
The scenery of the Hudson is grand and beautiful. Harpers 
Berry , according to Jefferson, contains scenery of such romantic 
loveliness that one could afford to cross the Atlantic to witness it. 

Virginia rivals any other state in the beauty of her mountain 
grandeur. 

Wierds . Mammoth , Blowing and Saltpeter caves are worth 
visiting. The Natural Bridge in Rockbridge county is 90 feet' 
long and 240 feet above the water. 

From the Peaks of Otter you have a full view to the Atlantic 
Ocean and long ranges in other directions, presenting to the eye 
the loveliest of landscapes. 

So numerous are the objects of interest it would require a vol¬ 
ume to describe all of them. 

RIVERS. 

13. The rivers of this region, especially the Hudson, the Dela¬ 
ware, the Sus quehanna, the Potomac and Ohio , a fiord peculiar 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


12.T 

facilities for carrying the products to the markets of the "Teat 
commercial cities. 


RIVERS. 


11 U <1 SOB. 

Delaware.’ " 

Susquehanna . 

Potomac. i 

.James. 

Ohio. 

Monongeirtln. 

Alleghany. 


AKKA OK BASIN. jLKNGTH.j MILES NAVIGABLE 


12.0001 

11,000, 

25,0001 

214,000 


350|]60. to Troy. 

350: 75,, to Trenton. 

400 

400 110, to Washington. 

450(150, t<> .Mouth Appomattox. 
050950, to Pittsburg. 

200*150. to Fairmount. 

300 260, to Orlean N. Y. 


LAKES. 


14. The Great Lakes, Ontario and Ei'ic , which form the north¬ 
ern boundary of the Middle States, constitute an important fea¬ 
ture in their physical geography, and largely contribute to their 
commercial advantages. The small lakes of New York give ad¬ 
ditional charm to the scenery of that state, and afford some ad¬ 
vantages for navigation. 


LAKES. 

Erie. 

Ontario. . 

Champlain. 

George. 

Oneida. 

Cayuga 

Chautauqua. 


;LENGTH. BREADTH 


250 

190 

100 

24 

20 

fl 

l-S 1 




REMARKS. 


60 Greatest depth 720 feet. 

551 “ •• fjfO ** 

2 to 14 Shores remarkable for its beautiful scenerv 
\ to 4 Remarkably transparent. 

6 It abounds in Hah. 

2 to 3 Its banks consist of rocks and ravines 
1 to Drained by the Alleghany. 


SOIL. 


15. With such an extent and diversity of surface there must be 
great variety. The valleys are extremly fertile, while the hilly 
sections have in general a thin soil. The northern part of New 
York is unproductive. In many parts as in New Jersey, Dela¬ 
ware and other places, the soil has been made very fertile by use 
of marl, a kind of a green sand found in great quantities in New 
Jersey. 


CLIMATE. 


16. The climate of northern New York is exceedingly cold, but 
it becomes rapidly warmer until we arrive at southern Virginia 
where the temperature is warm ; snow sometimes falls but melt- 
in a few hours. On the lowlands of Maryland and Virginia the 
climate is unhealthy during the summer months. 

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIONS. 

17. The original vegetation is greatly diversified. The soil 
and climate are peculiarly fitted to all kinds of grain. The vnllevs 
of the Genesee, Susquehanna and Shenandoah are famous for 
their wheat. Rye, oats and barley are laised in abundance. Corn 
can be produced everywhere except in northern New York. 





























A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


124 


owing to the rigor of the climate. Fruits, such as apples, pears, 
peaches, etc., are among the leading products. Virginia is next 
to Kentucky in the production of tobacco; Maryland produces 
about one-third as much as the former. New York, in the value 
of its live stocx, and in the production of milk,, buttei, cheese, hay, 
Irish potatoes, and hops exceeds any other state. 


MANUFACTURES. 

iS. In this branch of industry New York ranks first in the 
-Union, and Pennsylvania second. The other states of this section 
are also engaged quite extensively in manufacturing. The abun¬ 
dance ot minerals, the vast water power, and the unsurpassed 
commercial facilities, have made this region' to rank among the 
leading manufacturing centers of the globe. Cotton and woolen 
goods, clothing, machinery of all kinds, boot$ and shoes, leather, 
furniture, musical instruments, paper, books, hardware, railroad 
iron, chemicals, cigars and prepared tobacco, are some of the most 
important articles. 


MINERALS. 

19. In the production of coal, iron and petroleum Pennsylvania 
takes the lead; it produces two-thirds of all the coal, and three- 
fifths of all the iron in the United States. Between the Susque¬ 
hanna and the Delaware rivers are the anthracite coal-fields, the 
value of whose products is about one-half the entire yield of our 
country. 'The coal-fields ot this state cover an area of 13,000 square 
miles; those of West Virginia 16,000, but they arenas yet, not 
much worked. Virginia and Maryland are also rich in coal. 
Othei mineials aie zinc, marl, and sand for glass making; the first 
two are found mainly in New Jersey. Building stone is plenty in 
all parts. Excellent marble, as well as copper, are found in 
Virginia. 

COMMERCE. 

20. New Y ork, Philadelphia, and Baltimore are the great marts 
of foreign trade. Forty-five per cent, of all the exports of the 
United States, and 6S per cent, ot all the imports pass the first 
named city: The commerce of Baltimore is ©ne-sixth that of New 
1 01k, and that of Philadelphia about one-tenth. 

NATURAL ADVANTAGES 

21 . The pupil should be required to summarize thes.e 


.> 1 .11 Lv* 1 « 


TT 23 * To 6 ( l° meRt,c animals are about the same as elsewhere in the 
United States. In the uncultivated regions, occasionally, some oi 
the native wild animals are met with. The fisheries in the lakes 


A MANUAL Of' GEOGRAPHY. 


125 

of New York are valuable, white-fish, shad, and trout are abund¬ 
ant. In the Chesapeake bay. and the inlets, bays and sounds 
along the coast are the favorite habitat of the oyster. Of these, 
Maryland furnishes more than any other state. 

INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. 

23. No part of the Union presents more extensive and numer¬ 
ous canals and railroads than the Middle States. The Erie canal 
is the first and most important canal in the United States. Its 
extent from Buffalo to Albany is 350 miles. Champlain canal 
connects lake Champlain w ith the Hudson river at Troy, and is 66 
miles long. The Delaware and Hudson river canal is 108 miles 
long. The Hudson River , the Neve Pork Central the Jvric % the 
Pennsylvania Central , the Baltimore and Washington , and the 
Baltimore and Ohio are the most prominent lines of railway. 

Many elegant and costly bridges span the larger streams. The 
public roads are the best in the country. 

INHABITANTS. 

24. The Middle States were settled bv people from different 
countries'. England, Holland, Germany, Denmark, and Sweden. 
From this circumstance the population has always been more 
mixed than in New England. Those of English descent are, 
how’ever, by far the largest class. In some villages, the original 
language, manners and customs of the settlers are to be found, 
with little modification of time and circumstances. In Pennsyl¬ 
vania there arc large masses of Germans, and for these there are 
almanacs, newspapers, public documents, Bibles. &c.. printed in 
the German language. Still the English generally prevails. 

NUMBER OF INHABITANTS. 

25 . The number of inhabitants has been given above under extent. 

GOVERNMENT. 

26. Congress makes laws for the government ot the District 
of Columbia. There is nothing peculiar in the government of the* 
states; they differ from each other only in minor details. 

OCCUPATION. 

27. Agriculture is the chief employment, and is conducted on 
a grand scale. Commerce employs thousands of people. More 
than a million are engaged in manufacturing; many thousands 
are employed in the mines and fisheries. 

EDUCATION. 

2S. In nearly all of these states, first class advantages are afford- 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


126 


ed for the education of youth. Academies, seminaries, colleges 
-and universities are numerous. Among those best known are 
Cornell University , Ithaca; Columbia College and the Univer¬ 
sity^ in the city of New York; Princeton College , at Princeton; 
Girard College and the University of Pennsylvania, in Philadel¬ 
phia; the University of Maryland , and John Hopkins' Univer¬ 
sity^ in Baltimore; and the University of T'irgiuia, near Char¬ 
lottesville. 


RELIGION. 

29. The usual religious organizations of our country prevail 
here; there are many Roman Catholics in Maryland. 

CITIES. 

30. The first in size and most important is New Pork ; this’, 
together with Brooklyn, Jersey City and other suburban places, 
which really make one city, has a population of 2,^00,000, the 
second largest in the world. 

Among the curious and interesting objects in this city we may mention 
Broadzvay , one of the finest streets in the world; the Central Park,- of 800 
acres, ornamented by the City Hall; a splendid fountain , belonging to the 
Croton Aqueduct which is 41 miles long, and supplies the city with excellent 
water; the Battery , which is a handsome promenade skirted bv the bav; the 
Exchange, a noble edifice in Wall street. 

Brooklyn contains the residences of many ot the merchants of 
'New York. Albany contains a very costly state-house. Roches¬ 
ter is noted for its flouring mills. Buffalo for an extensive lake 
trade. Philadelphia is the first city in the Union in the extent of 
her manufactures. Baltimore has surroundings surpassing those 
. of any other city in the Union in varietv and elegance; it is an 
important manufacturing city. Washington , the ^capital of the 
United States, contains many public buildings belonging to the 
government, some of which are of surpassing splendor. / Pitts¬ 
burgh is noted for its extensive manufactures ot iron and glassware. 
Richmond is celebrated for its tobacco trade, and Syracuse for its 
salt. 

Several towns of this section are celebrated for their historical 
interest. Plattsburg is noted for the two victories gained over 
the British in 1S14. Trenton, for the capture of the Hessians bv 
General Washington in 1776. Gettysburg was the scene of one 
of the most important battles of the late war, fought July 2d and 
3d, 1863. Mount Vernon, on the Potomac, was the residence of 
George Washington, and contains his tomb. 


1*27 




A MAM'AL OF UKOHR A 1*11 Y. ' 


The following is a list of the population of the leading cities: 


,,|TIKs - |POP. 1880.| CfTIKS. POP. 1880. 


NEW YORK. 

New York. 

Reading. 43,1*00 

Brooklyn.. . 

507.000 j Lancaster. 20 , 000 - 

155,000 Wilkesharre. 28,000 

89.000| Altoona ' 2** 000 

Buffalo”. 

Rochester . 

A Ilian v. . 

01,000.!', DELAWARE. 

57,00q'\V i 1 in i ngt on. 42 000 

Trov. 



rtica. . 

84,000)1 MARYLAND. 

•>•> 000'Haitimore .239 000 

Auburn. 

Oswego. 

*>1 OOfll ('liniherland. 11 000 

Elmira ... 

•>1 not j Frederick 0 000 

Poughkeepsie . 

20,000! Annapolis. 0,500 

NEW JERSEY. 

Newark. 

DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 

187,000 Washington. 147,000 

Jersey City . 

Trenton .. .* _ 

121,0(H) Georgetown. 18,000 

80,000 ‘ VIRGINIA. 

51,000 Richmond 04,000 

Patterson. 

Canute n. 

4'LOOO Norfolk. 22,o**n 

Hoboken .. 

81,000 Petersburg 2‘ , ,0OO 

Elizabeth. 

Ncav Brunswick. 

28,000 Lynchburg . 10,000 

17,000 Alexandria . ... 14,000 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

Philadelphia.. 

Pittsburg . 

Portsmouth. 11,000 

847,0001 WEST VIRGINIA. 

158,000'Wheeling. . . . 31,000 

A llegbanv. 

79,ono;!Pnrkersliiir«\ 0 000 

Scranton 

40,000 Cbarleslon ..| 4,200 


. HISTORY. 

31. The ATiddle States were the chief theater of action during 
the Revolutionary war. New York was captured by the British 
in the autumn of 1776, and they did not leave it till November 
25th, 17S3. This city was the residence of the British command- 
•er-in-chiet, and the center of all military operations throughout 
the countrv. 


c o \ok ess. 


32. Philadelphia was also in the possession of the British from 
September 26th. 1777, till the iSth of June, 177$. 

Congress assembled at Philadelphia till it was threatened by 
the British, in the summer ot 1777. After the war, New York 
was for awhile the seat of government; and then Philadelphia, 
till it was removed to Washington, in 1800. 

W ashington occupied stations upon the Hudson, and in New 
Jersey and Pennsylvania, for several years ; and his most cele¬ 
brated displays of generalship took place in battles and skirmishes 
within the states of New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. 


STATICS. WHEN SETTLED. j BY WHOM SBTTI.HI>. WHEN 

Now York* .! Jftir Dutch 


Pennsylvania*.. 1881]Win. Penn 

Kcw Jersey* . _ 1620i Dutch 

Delaware*. 1080j.Sweedes and Finns 

Maryland*. ... IKS-ljEnglish 

Virginia*. 1007 English 

AVest Virginia. 


♦Of Hie thirteen original colonies. 


A DM 1TTEH. 

17ss 
1787 
1787 

1787 

1788 
17S8 
1868 





































































128 




A MANUAL OP GEOGRAPHY. 


SOUTHERN STATES. 


MP EXERCISE S. 

Capes. Lookout, Ilatteras, Fear, Romajn, Sable, Romano, 
San Bias. 

Gulfs and Bays.— Winyah, Chatham, Charlotte Harbor, 
Tampa, Wacasasa, Apalachee, Apalachicola, Santa Rosa, 
Pensacola, Mobile. Atchafalava, Galveston, Matagorda, La¬ 
guna cle laMadre, Vermillion,'Barataria. 

Straits and Sounds. —Pamlico, Albermarle, St. Helena, Port 
Royal, Barnes, Mississippi, Florida Strait, Corpus Christi 
Pass, Ilatteras Inlet, Isle au Brocton Sound. 

Islands. T lorida Keys, Marquesas, Dry Tortugas, Chande- 
leur, Galveston, Padre, 

Mountain Ranges.— Alleghany, Cumberland, Blue Ridge, 
Unaka, Smoky, Black. 

Mountain Peaks.— Grandfather, Caesar’s Head, Black Dome, 
Sugar Loaf, Lookout. 

Plains.— Atlantic Coast, Alligator Swamp, OkeeHnoLee, The 
Everglades. 

Lakes.— Okeechobe, Kissimee, Pontchartrain, Borgne, Cal¬ 
casieu, Sabine. 

Rivers.— Chowan, Roanoke, Pamlico, Neuse, Cape Fear, 
Great Pedee, Santee, Congaree, Wateree, Edisto, Savan¬ 
nah, Ogeechee, Altamaha, Oconee, Ocmulgee, St. Marys, St 
Johns,Suwanee, Apalachicola, Flint, Chattahoochee, Choc- 
tahatchee, Escambia, Perdido, Mobile, Alabama, Tombigbv, 
Pearl, Mississippi, Sabine, Atchafalaya, Calcasieu, Trinity’ 
Brazos, Colorado,San Antonia, Nueces, Rio Grande, Red’ 

I ecos, Aikansas, Canadian, White, Yazoo, Tennessee, Cum¬ 
berland. 

Cities.— Raleigh, Wilmington, Weldon, Columbia, Charleston. 
Atlanta, Macon, Columbus, Montgomery, Mobile, Selma 
Huntsville, Tallahassee, St. Marks, Pensacola, Key West’ 
Jacksonville, Nashville, Knoxville, Memphis, Chattanooga 
Jackson, Vicksburg, Natchez, New Orleans, Algiers, Baton 
Rouge, Donaldsonvilie, Alexandria, Natchitoches, Shreve¬ 
port, Little Rock, Batesville, Napoleon, Helena, Camden 
Austin, Galveston, Houston, Dallas, Indianola, San Antonia’ 
New Braunfels, Talequah. St. Augustine. 

Relative Position.— In what direction is Atlanta from Austin? 
from Columbia? from Pensacola? from Nashville? from little 
Rock? St. Augustine? 



A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


129 


Travels.— What state would you cross in going from Atlanta to 
Austin? to Little Rock? to Raleigh? Trace a water route 
from Savannah to Memphis; to Little Rock; to Austin; to 
Jackson. 

Miscellaneous.— What large towns have nearly the same lati¬ 
tude as New Orleans? When it is one o’clock at Raleigh, 
what is the time of the day at Austin? By means of the 
scale of miles, what is the distance from New Orleans to 
Austin? to Little Rock? to Nashville? To Atlanta? 

What is the altitude of the sun to-day at noon, in St. Augustine? 


DESCRIPTION. 


POLITICAL DIVISIONS. 

1. The southern states comprise North Carolina, South Caro¬ 
lina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Tennessee, Louisiana, 
Arkansas, Texas and the Indian Territory. 

POSITION. 

2. This section occupies the southern part of the United States. 
Kansas, Missouri. Kentucky and Virginia are on the northern 
boundary; the Atlantic washes the eastern shore and the Gulf 
of Mexico the southern; Mexico, and New Mexico are on the 
west; the latter also forms part of the boundarvof Texas. 

LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE. 

3. These states lie between the parallels 2c; 0 and 36^° north; 
and between the Meridians 76° and 107° west. 

EXTENT. 

4. The following exhibits the area of each state. 


NAME, 

GROSS. 

WATER. 

I.AND. || NAME. 

GROSS. 

WATER. 

LAND. 

North Carolina 
South Carolina 

Georgia. 

Florida. 

Alabama. 

Tennessee. . . 

f>2,2f>0 

30.570 

59,475 

58.680 

52,250 

42.050 

8,670 

400 

495 

4,440 

710 

800 

48,580 

40,1701 

58,98Q 

54.24(i| 

51.540| 

41,750 

Mississippi.... 

Louisiana. 

A rkansas. 

Texas. 

Indian Ty. 

46,810 

48,720 

53,850 

265,780 

64,690 

470 

8,800 

805 

3,490 

600 

46,340 

'45,420 

58,045 

262,290 

64.090 































A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


130 

CHARACTERISTICS. 

5. “Here in a sunny clime, ’mid breezes bland. 

Bright dowers unfold, and luscious fruits expand. 

No vi intry blast to chill, the magnolia blows, • 

The sweet fig ripens, and the orange glows. 

Mixed with the sand or deep in mountain veins, 

The heedful miners golden ores obtain; 

While richer stores prolific spring to birth, 

Almost unbidden, from the teeming earth. 

Cotton, tobacco, sugar, rice repay, 

In this,soft clime, the planter’s culturing sway.” 

COAST. 

6. Every part of the coast is low and flat. The capes of North 
Carolina, Hatteras, Lookout and Fear, are dangerous to naviga¬ 
tors, being beset with shoals. The Peninsula of Florida may be 
considered as an immense cape. The delta of the Mississippi is 
a long projection forty miles in extent. On the Gulf Coast, shift¬ 
ing sand-bars hinder navigation. 


BAYS AND SOUNDS. 

7. These are numerous but generally shallow and little availa¬ 
ble for the purposes of navigation. Mobile is the most important 
bay in this part of the United States. 

ISLANDS. 

S. Galveston is the largest and most important; it is 30 miles 
Tong and 3 wide, and contains the populous city of Galveston, 
noted for its commerce. 

The Florida A eys, south of Florida, is a large group of coral 
islan'ds inhabited by a few fisherman and wreckers. Many of the 
islands along the Atlantic coast are low and sandy but some of 
them are very fertile and produce the famous sea-island cotton 
distinguished for its long silky fiber. 

SURFACE. 

9. The Atlantic coast plain attains here its greatest width, 
about 300 miles. Tne tide water section is flat; from this the sur¬ 
face rises until the mountains are reached. The lowlands are al¬ 
luvial and have been formed by the conjoint action of the rivers 
and the ocean. Almost the whole state of Florida is a coral 
formation covered with a rich soil; this accounts for its flat surface. 
About two-thirds of Louisiana is oi delta origin and 1.0 pait is 
moie than 100 feet above the sea level. There is a great diversity 
of sui face in other 'parts of this section. 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


131 


MOUNTAIN RANGES. 

io. The southern portion of the Appalachian system extends, 
in various ranges, from Virginia, to Alabama, where it terminates. 
This system reaches its greatest elevation in North Carolina, in 
the Unaka Range. 



MOUNTAIN 

PEAKS. 


S.nokevDome . 


Grand Father’s. . 


Guyot. 

.6,636 

Stone Mountain. 


Buck lev. 


Mitchell’s. 

.6,707 

King’s. 




NATURAL CURIOSITIES. 

ii. These are many and of the highest order. Several isolated 
peaks afford magnificent views. Numerous cataracts exist in 
the mountains. 

Stour Mountain in Georgia and Lookout Mountain in Tennessee are fa¬ 
vorite resorts for tourists; the latter in addition to the grand and beautiful 
. scenery is remarkable tor a great battle fought here Nov. 24th 1863. Table 
rock, of South Carolina, presents on one side a perpendicular face of 1100 
feet. Caesar's Head in the same vicinity is so called from its resemblance to 
a human cranium. In the north-western extremity of Georgia, in the Rac¬ 
coon Mountains, is Nicojeck Care. Its mouth is fifty feet high and eighty 
feet wide. It has been explored for several miles, without coming to the end. 
The floor is covered with a stream of cool limpid water through its whole ex¬ 
tent, and the cavern is accessible only in a canoe. Three miles within is a 
cataract, beyond which voyagers have not penetrated. The roof is of solid 
limestone, smooth and flat, and the cave is remarkably uniform in size through¬ 
out. 

Florida contains numerous springs of enormous size; some at 
their sources pour forth streams large enough to turn a mill. 
The great spring, 12 miles from Tallahassee, is over 1200 feet 
deep, and forms a beautiful lake of great transparency, reflecting 
all the colors of the sky; its waters are almost as cold as ice, even 
in the hottest weather. 

Among the objects of interest to tourists, the Hot Springs, of 
Arkansas, about 60 miles south-west of Little Rock, stand promi¬ 
nent. There are about 100 of these with temperatures varying 
from 135 0 to 160°. A specially remarkable feature about them is, 
that there are springs of very cold water in such close juxtaposi¬ 
tion that one can sit with one hand in a hot spring and with the 
other hand in a cold spring. The waters of these springs are said 
to have great curative properties and are visited annually by 
thousands of persons. 










132 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


LAKES. 

11. The lakes of Florida and Louisiana are numerous; those of 
the former are noted for their great transparency. The Okeechobee , 
in the south, is the largest. The lakes of Louisiana are shallow, 
and the term lagoon is a more appropriate designation of these 
bodies of water. In the north-western paitof the state there is a 
series of lakes, formed in the valley of the Red River by the over¬ 
flowing ot that stream. When the water is high it sets back and 
Alls these reservoirs, which are nearly drained again during the 
dry season. 


LAKES. 

LENGTH. 

BREADTH. 

AREA. 

Okeechobee. 

40 

25 

sow 

Pontchartrain. 

40 

25 

800 

Borgne . 

60 

26 


Sabine . 

20 

q 

160 

Calcasieu. 

20 

5 

90 

Kissime. 

12 




RIVERS. 

I 3* This entire region is well watered by noble rivers many 
of which afford many miles of navigation. In general they are 
navigable through the tide water section which is about 60 miles 
wide. The following table exhibits the length of the principal 
rivers, and the number of miles of navigation. 


RIVERS. 

LENGTH. 

Chowan. 


Roanoke.. 

23( 

Neuse. 

30C 

Pamlico.. 

220 

Cape Fear. 

Great Pedce. 

250 

Santee. 

150 

Savannah. 

550 

Altamaha. 

150 

St. John. 

350 

Apilaehicola. 

Escambia. 

90 

Mobile. 

45 

Alabama. 

300 

Tombigby. 

500 

Pearl. 

400 

Tennessee. 

800 

Red. 

1600 

Arkansas. 

1500 

Sabine... 

500 


MILES OP NAVIGATION. 


75 

130 , to Weldon. 

120, to Goldsborough. 

100 , to Tarborough, 

130, to Fayettville. 

120. te Gardner’s Bluff. 

150. 

;230, to Augusta and 130 miles farther by small boats. 
150, 

250, to Enterprise and much farther by small boats. 

to the mouth of the Conecula. 

45 

265, to Montgomery. 

355. to Columbus. 

About 100 for small boats. 

270, to Florence; above the shoals to Kingston. 

350, to Shreveport. 

650, to Fort Smith. 

400, for small vessels. 


SOIL. 

14* Some of the lichest soils in our country are in the southern 
states. In the mountain regions there is much poor soil, and in 
the westei n paits of Texas and the Indian territory are extensive 
tracts of barren, sandy soil. 














































A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


133 


CLIMATE. 

15. Along the east the climate is hot and moist, and in some 
places unhealthy. In the elevated regions it is more temperate. 
The climate of Florida is decidedly tropical; even in winter the 
heat is oppressive. The temperature of the western states is 
cooler than that of the Atlantic states. The breezes from the 
Gulf Stream renders this portion some warmer in the same lati¬ 
tude. 

VEGETATION. 

16. Here nature exhibits great luxuriance and variety. Heavy 
forests of pine cover the lowlands, except in Florida. The yellow 
pine, producing tar, pitch, turpentine and valuable timber; the 
live oak, the gloomy cypress, the graceful palmetto,‘the aromatic 
bay tree, are indigenous to this region. Tobacco, rice, cotton, 
corn and sweet potatoes aie the staples of agriculture. Oranges, 
lemons and figs are among the fruits. The sugar cane is raised 
extensively in southern Mississippi and in Lousiana. In Texas 
there are numerous ranches containing large herds of cattle. 

MINERALS. 


17. Gold is found in the mountain regions from Virginia to 
Alabama. Iron exists in all the States except in Florida, but 
nowhere so abundant as in Tennessee; it is said that thirty-five 
counties in this state contain iron. Coal and copper are wanting 
in Florida; in fact these states are almost without minerals; coal 
is obtained in the former, and large quantities of sulphur and salt 
in the latter. Arkansas is said to contain every known mineral. 
Tennessee is very rich in marble; 200 different varieties and 
shades are known. 


MANUFACTURES. 

iS. These formerly were few, but are now becoming more 
common. Manufactures of all kinds are springing up all over the 
south. The leading articles of manufacture are tar, rosin, turpen¬ 
tine, cotton-seed oil, cotton goods, woolen goods, iron, ironware, 
flour, machinery, lumber, sugar, molasses, steamboats, etc. 

COMM ERCE. 

19. The great commercial centers of the south are Wilmington, 
Charleston, Savannah, Mobile, New Orleans and Galveston. 
The exports are chiefly the great staples: cotton, sugar, rice, 
lumber and naval stores (tar, pitch, rosin and turpentine,) Texas 
also exports wheat, cattle, ponies, etc. The imports are manu¬ 
factures from the northern states and from Europe, (northern 
fruits, wheat, ice,etc.) 







/ 


134 A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 

NATURAL ADVANTAGES. 

20. The pupil should be required to summarize these. 

INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. 

21. Railroads have not been built on a scale of such magnitude 
as in the northern states, because of a lack of capital and because 
her rivers have all along afforded cheap transportation; still there 
are many important lines. Georgia takes the lead in useful im¬ 
provements of all kinds. Several canals have been dug, and the 
channels of some of her rivers have been improved. In many 
places the banks of the Mississippi are so low that huge dikes, 
■called levees , have been built to keep the water in its channels. 
Sometimes these levees give way, when great destruction of 
property and even life ensues. The disasters of 1S73 and 1882 
are too fresh in our minds to need a recital. About 12.000,000 
acres of swamp land is being drained in southern Florida; also, 
several canals of importance are being constructed. 

AN IMALS. 

22. Alligators are met with in the rivers; the rattlesnake and 
moccasin are common. Hummingbirds, paroquets, the turkey 
buzzard, (a species of small vulture), are among the peculiar 
anim ds. Deer, wild turkey, grouse and water-foul abound in 
some parts. 

INHABITANTS. 

23. The population is chiefly of English descent, though it is 
mixed in-some places. I-i Louisiana there are many descendants 
of the French, called creoles . and of the Spanish in Florida. The 
Indians, formerly numerous, are nearly all removed to the Indian 
Territory. The negroes, who form two fifths of the population, 
are a separate cast. They were brought to this country from 
Africa during the slave-holding period. It is said that Africa 
was depopulated of 40,0x0,coo cf her inhabitants to supply the 
slave trade of America. 


POPULATION. 

24 The following contains the population of the Southern states: 


STATES. 

pop. 1870. 

j POP. 1880. 

p‘k cent, i’cksi 

POP. TO SQ. M- 

North Carolina. 

Smith Carolina 

Ge >r$ria. 

Florida 

A lab-mi a . 

Mississippi. 

Tennessee. 

Louisiana. 

I, '7J.U0 
706.000 

J. 184.00. 
188.00H 
9 >7.0o< 
*28,000 

I,259.0( 0 
727 O00 

| 1 4’>0 00( 

990,000 
1.539.000 
267.0 0 
1,263.000 
1.132.700 
1.542.000 

(t | A |tnn 

41 2-5 
30 

42 

MM 

m 

bu 

82« 

26 

4 M 

24 

28 

37 

Arkansas. 

4*4.000 

onQ 


21 

T'exas 

819*000 

08,000 

Ovo,l 

1,.'93,(00 

65 p 3 

15 

Indian Territory. 

Vi) 

6 

























A MANUAL OF CROC} KAPHY. 


OCCUPATIONS. 

2. Agriculture is the chief employment; the farms are gener¬ 
ally large. There are few villages or towns and the people live 
in a scattered manner over the country. The inventions of the 
cotton gin, the spinning-jenny, and the power loom, have 
wrought a wonderful effect upon the industrial pursuits of the 
Southern states. One of these machines will do the work of sev¬ 
eral hundred hands. 


Language. 

26 The English is the language of the inhabitants in general. 
In Louisana the French is used to a considerable extent; many of 
the books, newspapers, and laws are printed in this language. 
There are some Spaniards in Florida who still speak the Spanish 
tongue. 

GOVERNMENT. , 

27. There is nothing peculiar in the government of the states. 
Indian Territory has been set apart by Congress as a reservation 
for the Indians of our country. Th s was done in 1834, and al¬ 
ready many tribes have been removed thither, among the chief 
are the Cherokees, Choctaws, Creeks, Chicasaws. Our govern¬ 
ment exercises no control over this territory except to preserve 
peace. 

EDUCATION. 

28. A number of good schools exist, and in some ot the states 
liberal appropriations are made tor educational purposes. 
However, the facilities are not eciual to those of the northern and 
eastern states. The percent, of illiteracy is greater than in any 
other part of the union. 

RELIGION. 

20. The people generally incline either to the Methodists ot 
Baptists; the latter are more numerous here than elsewhere in the 
United States. According to the last census, the Baptists of the 
southern states numbered 1,024,000; the Methodists 1,229,000. 

CHIEF CITIES. 

30. +Vczv Orclans , stands on the left bank of the Mississppi river 
100 miles from its mouth. From its form, as it lies on the bend 
of the river, it is sometimes called the Crescent City. The ground 
on which it is built is soft and marshy and there are no cellars to 
any of the buildings. Nothing can exceed the hurry and bustle 
of this city, during the shipping season. Its wharves are con¬ 
stantly crowded by hundreds of steamboats. As a cotton market 
it ranks first in the world. 


136 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


Mobile ranks third as a cotton market; it is compactly built and 
well drained. The public building's are numerous. 

Savannah , on one of the best harbors in the South, is regularly 
laid out with wide streets, and beautifully shaded with palmetto 
and other trees, Many of its dwellings are handsome specimens 
of architecture. It ranks second as a cotton market. 

Charleston , at the junction of Cooper and Ashley rivers, has a 
deep and spacious harbor, and is the most commercial city of South 
Carolina. The harbor is defended by Fort Sumpter and Castle 
Pinckney. The street scenery resembles that of Savannah. 

Wilmington has an extensive trade, both inland and foreign. 

Nashville , the capital of Tennessee, is a handsome city and the 
educational centre of the South. It is the seat of three Univer¬ 
sities, one college, and two female seminaries. The capitol, which 
stands on a commanding eminence 175 feet above the river, is a 
magnificent structure. This city is distingushed for its wealth, 
enterprising spirit, literary taste, and polished society. 

Memphis has a fine situation on the Mississppi, and is a great 
cotton market. During the summers of 1SS0-S1, it was sorely 
afflicted with the yellow fever scourge which caused the popula¬ 
tion to decrease largely. 

POPULATION OF LEADING TOWNS AND CITIES. 


CITIES. 

popu’tion. 

CITIES. 

POPU’TION- 

SOUTH CAROLINA. 

Wilmington. 

17.000 

MISSISSIPPI. 

Vicksburg... 

12,000 

Raleigh. . 

y,ooo 

7,000 

N ate he/. 

Charlotte. 

Jackson 

1 ,uuu 
5,000 
4,000 
4,000 

New Berne.. 

6,500 

Meridian 

Favettville. 

8,500 

Columbus 

Goldsborough . 

8,800 

TENNESSEE. 

NORTH CAROLINA. 


Nashville. 

48,000 

84,000 

13.000 

10,000 

Charleston. 

50.000 

Mem phis 

Columbia.. 

10,000 

Chattanooga 

Greenville. 

6,200 

Knoxville 

GEORGIA. 

ARKANSAS. 

Atlanta. 

87,000 

Little Rock. 

13,000 

3,600 

3,200 

Savannah. 

81,000 

22,000 

18.000 

Helena 

A n gust a. 

Pine Bluff 

Macon . 

LOUISIANA. 

Columbus. 

10,000 

New Orleans 

216,000 

Athens. 

6,000 

Shrevepo-t 

FLORiDA. 

Baton Rouge. 

o.UlHJ 

7,000 

2,000 

Key est. 

10,000 

8,000 

Monroe 

Jacksonville..... 

TEXAS. 

Pensacola . 

7.000 

Galveston 

22,000 

21,000 

17 nnr 

St. Augustine.. 

2,800 

San Antonio 

ALABAMA. 

Houston .. . 

Mobile.. 

29,000 
17,000 I 

Austin. 


Montgomery. 

Dallas... . 

i 1*UUU 
10,000 
7,800 
6,700 

Selma. 

7,500 I 

W aco 

Huntsville. 

5,000 |l 

HIST( 

F 011 Worth. 


DRY. 

North and South Carolina 

were originally embraced under the 

i general 

term of Carolinas; they were separated 

in 1729 . 








































































A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY 


137 


Georgia was the last settled of the Atlantic States. The charter under 
which the colony was founded was granted in 1732 by George II., in honor of 
whom it received its name. The first settlement was made the foHowingyear 
at Savannah. 


Florida was purchased of Spain in 1820, 
southern portions of Alabama and Mississippi, 
at St. Augustine in 1565. 


and at this time included the 
The first settlement was made 


Louisiana with all the territory west of the Mississippi not claimed by 
Mexico, was purchased of France in the year 1803, by our government for a 
consideration of $15,000,000; it has ever since been known as the “Louisiana 
Purchase.” 


Texas was originally a state of Mexico, but seceded in 1S35, and in 1S45 it 
was annexed to the United States. 


THE NORTII-CENTRAL STATES. 


MAP EXERCISES. 

Capes. —North, White Fish, Keweenaw. 

Gulfs and Bays. —Sandusky, Maumee, Saginaw, Green, Thun¬ 
der, Fond du Lac, Keweenaw, Hammonds, White Fish. 

Straits. —Mackinaw. 

Islands. —Kelley’s, Bass, Bois Blanc, Washington, St. Martin’s, 
Fox, Beaver, Manitou, Apostle, Outer, Grand. 

Peninsulas.— North Michigan, South Michigan, 

Mountain Ranges. —Ozark, Cumberland, Black Hills. 

Mountain Peaks. —Iron, Pilot Knob. 

Lakes. —Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, St. Clair, Winnebago, 
Horicon, Koshkonong, Traverse, Big Stone, Devil, Houghton, 
Lake of the Woods, Red, Rainy, Sturgeon, Mille Lac, Leech, 
Cass, Winibigoshish. 

Rivers. —Mississippi, Ohio, Missouri, Illinois, Kaskaskia, Rock, 
Wisconsin, Black, Chipperwa, St. Croix, Menomonee, 
Portage, Fox, St. Marys, St. Clair, Detroit, Kalamazoo, Grand, 
Muskegon, Saginaw,Maumee, Wabash, White, Miami, Scioto^ 
Hocking, Muskingum, Sandusky, Big Sandy, Kentuky, Green^ 
Licking, Cumberland, Tennessee, Arkansas, Kansas, Platte^ 







138 


MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


o sage, Des Moines, Minnesota, Dakoto, Red River of the 
North, Niobrara, Big Shevenne. 

Cities— Cincinnati, Columbus, Cleveland,Toledo, Dayton, Louis¬ 
ville, Covington, Newport, Indinanapolis, Evansville, Peoria, 
Chicago, Springfield, Quincy, Fort Wayne, Madison, Mil¬ 
waukee, Racine. La Crosse, Oshkosh, Detroit, Lansing, Grand 
Rapids. Saginaw, St. Louis, Jefferson City, Kansas City, St.. 
Paul, Minneapolis, Des Moines, Keokuk, Dubuqe, Burlington, 
Omaha, Yankton, Lincoln, Topeka, Leavenworth. 


Relative Positon.— In what direction is Cincinnati from 
Louisville? from Columbus? Chicago? St. Louis? Frankfort? 
Indianapolis from Evansville? from Kansas City ? Milwaukee? 
Toledo? Detroit? Springfield? Columbus? Yankton? Louis¬ 
ville? 




Travels — On what waters would you sail ingoing from Cincin¬ 
nati to St. Paul? to Chicago? Yankton? Toledo? Columbus? 
In going from Detroit to Oshkosh? to Duluth? to Cleveland? 
to Fort Wavne? 


Miscellaneous.— Give the latitude of the capital of each state 
of this section. Give longitude of the same. Name ten cities 
on the Ohio River. Why should St. Louis become a large 
city? Why is Chicago large? What places have the same 
length of day as Columbus? What is the difference of time 
between Columbus and Indianapolis? St. Louis? Omaha? 
In which city does the sun set first to-day, Louisville or Grand 
Rapids? Covington or Toledo? 


DESCRIPTION. 

POLITICAL DIVISIONS. 

i. This section of the Union comprises the states of Kentucky 
Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa,. 
Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska and Dakota Territory. 


POSITION. 

2. It is bounded on the north by British America and the lakes, 
and on the cast, west and south by states and territories of the 
United States. 

LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE. 

3- ^ lies between the parallels 36° and 49 0 and between th e 

meridians SoJ° and 104 0 west of Greenwich. 











A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


139 - 



extent. 


>T ATKS. 


Kentucky . 

Ohio .. . 

Indiana.. 

Illinois. 

Michigan. 

Wisconsin. 

Minnesota. 

Iowa. 

Missouri. . 

Kansas . 

Nebraska . .. . 

Dakota 

v Distances from 


|GROSS ARKA 


40.4110 

. 41,000 

38.350 

5H,fi50 

. r.8.«15 

5H.I 40 

s:;.8or, 

50,025 

...... 00.415 

S2,0Ko 

. . 70,855 

140,100 

Cincinnati. 


'WATER SURFACE. [ 

400 
3a0 
410 
05 • 

1.485 
1.500 
4,100 
5c 0 
080 
380 
070 
1.400 


I. AN IF SURFACE. 


40.000 
40,700 
85.010 
50.000 
57.13(» 
54,450 
70,2 '."> 
55,475 
08.7.35 
Sl,7ll(> 
70,185 
147,800 


TOWNS. MILES. 

Louisville. . .....137 

Milwaukee. .320 

('hicago.270 

Nashville .. .230 

St. Louis. ... . 300 


TOWNS. 

i ndinapolis 
St. Paul . . 
Cleveland.. 
< hnaha ... 
Saginaw. . . 


M I I.KS. 

. . . . ICO 

. . C *\O 

••• -35 

. .. .620 

... .300 


CHARACTERISTICS. 

6 . I lie western states have 1 ecu de? cubed as follows: 

It thou wouldst find a favored land. 

By nature’s chosen bounties blest, 

A fertile soil, a climate bland; 

Go seek the regions of the West. 

Here is the farmer’s paradise, 

Rich harvests come with little care; 

\\ bile spreading rivers brimming rise, . —' 

And to the marts these products bear. 

The grand Mississippi toils, 

For millions over its vallev spread; 

And asks no share of countless spoils, 
l pon its burdened bosom sped. 

Majestic stream! thou roll’est along, 

Tvpe of the land thy waters lo\e. 

W ith bosom broad and current strong. 

Oh who shall stay thy onward swav. 

COAST. 

7 - 1 his division ot the United States has no sea coast, but its- 

lake coast is extensive, the state of Michigan alone has above iqco 
mile-', because of which it is frequently called the Lake State. 


GULFS AND BAYS. 

8 . Tne Great Lai <es are well indented and many bays arc 
formed; Saginaw, Green, Fond du Lac. Thunder, Sandusky, etc., 
are the principal. 

The following gives the dimensions of some of the largest bars. 


BAYS. I.KNUTH. BREADTH. 


DEPTH. 


Green 
Saginaw. 
M a 11 mee 
Sandii'k; 


ll'i I 10 to 2u| 500. 

(>( S- Deep enough for the largest ve8?e>s. 















































140 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


ISLANDS. 

9. The islands are generally small, but some, as those in Lake 
Erie, are important. 

SURFACE. 

10. The surface may be described as composed of vast level 
tracts, slightly broken in some places with low hills, and in others 
gently undulating, but rarely rugged or precipitous. The beds of 
the streams are often worn deep below the general elevation, giv¬ 
ing their banks a hilly appearance, which, however, is wholly 
deceptive. The hillv sections embrace the southern parts of 
Ohio, Indiana, Illinois and Missouri, also large portions of Dakota 
and northern Michigan. The remainder is in general level or 
slightly rolling. 

MOUNTAINS. 

11. This region contains no mountain chains of extent, except 
the Cumberland on the eastern boundary of Kentucky, and the 
Ozark in Missouri; the latter may be regarded as a part of the 
Rocky Mountain System. 

PLAINS AND VALLEYS. 

12. The larger valleys have already been described. There are 
many smaller ones noted for their beauty and fertility. There are 
extensive prairies in Illinois, Iowa and some other places celebra¬ 
ted for their fertility. 

NATURAL CURIOSITIES. 

13. Some of the largest caves in the world are found in the 
Western States. Mammoth Cave , near Green River has been 
explored ten miles. About twenty rooms have been discovered, 
and here are found subterranean streams, waterfalls, and pits of 
unknown depth. Several of the rooms are of great extent, and 
have received appropriate names. 

The Haunted Chamber is two miles long, twenty feet hi Mi 
and ten wide, the roof being supported by beautiful pillars. One 
apartment is assigned to the evil spirit, where he has a dining- 
hall, forging-shop , Sc. In one place, there is a considerable 
stream, in which there is a species of fish without eyes. 

Epsom Salt cave of Indiana . In Indiana on the bank of 
the Big Blue River, a small stream falling into the Ohio, is the 
Epso 7 n Salt Cave. This contains salt-petre, aluminous earth, and 
gypsum. About a mile and a halt within the cave is a white 
column, thirty feet high, fluted from top to bottom, and sur- 
Tounded by smaller columns of the same shape and appear- 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


141 


ance. The floor of the cave is covered with Epsom salt, some¬ 
times in lumps of ten pounds weight. 

Pictured Rocks of Lake Superior. The south eastern shore of 
Lake Superior exhibits a singular phenomenon, called Pictured 
Rocks. They are a series of lofty bluffs and precipices, exhibit¬ 
ing the appearance of towering walls, ruins, caverns, water¬ 
falls, &c., in every variety of combination. They extend 
twelve miles, and are generally about 300 feet in height, and often 
overhang the water. The color varies in shades of black, yellow, 
red, white and brown. The waves driven by the violent north 
winds, have worn the rocky shores into numerous caverns, bays 
and indentations, which increase the romantic eft'ect of these ap¬ 
pearances. In some places, these caverns receive the waters with 
a tremendous roar. In one place, a cascade tumbles from the top 
of the rock in so wide a curve, that boats pass between the sheet 
of water and the shore. 


LAKES. 

14. The Great Lakes which lie between the Western States and 
British America have been noticed. There are numerous small 
lakes in the three northern states. Many of them abound in fish, 
a’nd upon their banks saw-mills are built. 

RIVERS. 

15. Perhaps no region in the world is so bountifully supplied 
with navigable streams. Tbe Missouri and the Mississippi 
spread their hundred giant arms in every portion of its vast sur¬ 
face. All the navigable streams are the scenes of active trade, 
and are covered with steamboats and river craft. 


NAME. 

LENGTH. AREA of BASIN. 

MILES OF NAVIGATION. 

M issiesippi. 

4,200 1,107,000 

2.900 518,000 

97.5! 214,000 

0001 17,000 

800 41,000 

260 

2001 

550 12,000 

600 

650' 32,000 

>,2.200, to St. Paul. 

2,60f?, to Ft. Benton. 

950, to Pittsburg. 

200 to Nashville. 

27o, to Florence. 

402, 40 miles above Frankfort. 

130 to Columbus. 

300, 

245, 

Missouri. 

Oho. 

Cumberland . 

Tennessee. 

Kentucky. 

Scioto. 

Wabash.. 

Illinois. 

Red Riverof the North 
Platte . 


sou.. 


16. These states contain the most extensive tracts of fertile soil 
in the United States, and seemed destined to be the granary of 
millions of people. The northern peninsulas of Michigan, western 
Nebraska, and portions of Dakota are nearly sterile. 





















142 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


CLIMATE. 

17. The cold is severe in the northern parts, and, in general, the 
temperature is lower than in the same parallels of latitude cm the 
Atlantic coast. Bilious and intermittent fevers are among the most 
common diseases; in some parts there is considerable ague. Pul¬ 
monary complaints are rare, especially in the northern states of 
Minnesota and Wisconsin, where the air is very pure and the 
temperature remarkably even. 

VEGETABLE PRODUCTS. 

18. T he largest deciduous tree of the American forest east of the 
Rocky Mountains is the occidental plane-tree, popularly known 
under the various names of sycamore, button-wood, and cotton- 
tree. It attains its greatest size in the western states, sometimes 
rising with a trunk from ten to fifteen feet in diameter, to the 
height of seventy feet before it begins to give out branches. The 
cotton wood, a species of poplar, which abounds on the west- 

’ern rivers, attains the height of eighty feet. It receives its name 
from its bearing a downy matter resembling cotton. The tulip- 
tree or white-wood, also called poplar: the black walnut, the 
butternut, the sugar-maple, pecan, various species of oak, etc.,ane 
common. The paw-paw is a shrub or small tree, which bears an 
oblong yellowish fruit resembling a cucumber, with a soft and 
-edible, but insipid pulp. The locust-tree is a beautiful ornamental 
tree, and useful in the arts on account of the hardness and durabili¬ 
ty of the wood. 

This section is the greatest agricultural region of the United 
States, producing immense quantities of wheat, corn, oats, barley, 
rye, potatoes, tobacco, orchard fruits, cattle, horses, sheep and 
hogs. 

MINERALS. 

19. . Lead is very abundant in Missouri, Illinois, Iowa, and Wis- 
'consin. Iron is mined chiefly in Ohio, Missouri and northern Michi¬ 
gan. Tim iron and copper of lake Superior are not only among 
the richest deposits of these metals, but rank with the best in the 
'world. Perhaps, the largest deposit of iron in any one place, is 
found in Missouri, in Iron Mountains and Pilot Knob. It is said 
that the former contains iron sufficient to build a railroad thirty- 
three times around the world, and to supply it with all necessary 
rolling stock. Bituminous coal covers an area of many thousand 
square miles. . Salt is obtained in many places but especially in 
-Kentucky, Ohio, and Michigan. Petroleum exists in considerable 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


143 

quantities in north-eastern Ohio. Building stones of all kinds are 
abundant. 


MANUFACTURES. 

20. These are extensive and flourishing in nearly all parts, and 
consist chiefly ofagricultural implements, furniture, lumber, flour, 
pig-iron and iron castings, salt, wc^nlen and willow wares, 
machinery, cars. etc. 


COMMERCE. 

21. 1 his is almost wholly inland, but is very extensive and is 
carried on by means of canals, rivers, ami the numerous railroads 
which intersect this section in even direction. The trade upon 
the lakes is large. The exports are mainly the products of the 
soil; the imports are goods from the eastern cities. 

NATURAL ADVA.NTAGE8. 

22. The pupil should now be required to give the advantages from what he 
h is learned: ist for agriculture; 2nd for manufacturing; 3rd for commerce. 

ANIMALS. 

23. The wild animals indigenous to the country are no longer 
common. The brown bear, deer, elk, cougar, wild turkey, etc, 
are occasionally met with in the unsettled regions. The smaller 
animals, such as squirrels, rabbits, weasels, minks, badgers, ground¬ 
hogs, skunks, snakes, etc, are still t > be found in nearly all parts. 
The domestic animals common in the olderstates, prevail here. 

IN TE RN A L IM I* R0V F.M E XTS. 

24. These are numerous and valuable. Many of the most im¬ 
portant lines of railway lie wholly or largely within these states. 
Nearly every important town has railroad communications. Agri¬ 
culture is carried on mainly by means of the most improved 
machinery, and is no longer a drudge work. The public roads are 
in general good, and travel is rendered easy and pleasant. Bridges 
and public buildings of great cost and elegance are scattered 
throughout this region. 

O ct 


INHABITANTS. 

25. The inhabitants are descendants of almost every European 
country, and of every Atlantic state. There are separate com¬ 
munities of French, Welsh, Germans and Swiss, and there are many 
English. .Scotch, and Irish citizens. Ohio and Indiana are peopled 
principally from New England, and Kentucky from Virginia and 
North Carolina. There are many negroes in Kentucky and Mis- 



144 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


souri. Amidst a poulation so variously composed, and of so re¬ 
cent an origin,we can not expect to find many prevailing characteris¬ 
tics. The English language and American habits and manners, 
are, however, rapidly moulding ali into one homogeneous mass. 

26. NUMBER OF INHABITANTS. 


STATES. 

pop. 1870. 

POP. 1880. 

WHITE. 

COLORED. 

|POP 

SQ . M 

Kentucky. 

1,321,000 

1,649 0oo 

1,377.000 

271.000 


41 

.Ohio. 

2,665,000 

3,198’000 

3,118,000 

80,000 


78 

Indiana. 

1,039,000 

1,978’000 

1.939,000 

39.000 


55 

I llinois. 

2.54o,000 

3,C78’000 

3,031,000 

46,000 


55 

Michigan. 

1,118.000 

1.637’000 

1,615.000 

15,000 


28 

Wisconsin... 

1,055,000 

1,315-000 

1,310,000 

2,700 


24 

Minnesota. 

440,000 

78P000 

777,000 

1,600 


9 7-10 

1 owa. 

1,194,000 

1,625 000 

1,615,00< 

10,000 


30 

Missouri. 

1.721.000 

2.168»000 

2,023.000 

645,000 


31 

Kansas. 

364,000 

99600 

952; 000 

43.000 


12 

Nebraska. 

123,000 

582,600 

450.000 

2,000 


6 

Dakota.. 

14,000 

135.000 

133,000 

4,00 


1 


OCCUPATION. 

27. Agriculture is the chief employment of the people, but man¬ 
ufacturing, mining and commerce engage many of the inhabitants. 
Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois rank among the first states of the Un¬ 
ion in the value of their manufactures. 

LANGUAGE. 

28. The English is the dominant language everywhere. 
French is spoken in a few places in Wisconsin and Illinois; and 
the Swiss, Germans, and Welsh in many places retain their own 
language. 

EDUCATION. 

29. Excellent school systems have been inaugurated in all these 
states, and education is general among all classes. Many superior 
schools of an high order exist. The state schools are doing a 
grand work, and a common school education is within the reach 
of all. 


RELIGION. 

30. The usual religious denominations of the United States 
prevail here. 

cities. 

31. These are already numerous and many hold a respectable 
rank among the great cities of our country and the woild. Chi¬ 
cago, on Lake Michigan, is the largest and most important. It 



























A MAXUALOF <i EDO K A 1*11 V. 


147 ) 


is the great centre of wheat, corn, and pork markets. Milwaukee, 
St. I -•onis, Louisville, Cincinnati, Detroit, and Cleveland are tine 
flourishing: cities. 


CITIES. 

KENTUCKY. 

Louisville. 

(pvington.. 

Newport. 

Lexington. 

Paducah . 

Frankfort. . 

OK'O. 

Cincinnati. 

Clevela ml. 

Columbus . 

Toledo. 

1 >ayton. 

Springfield . 

Zanesvilltf. 

A kion . . . 

Sanduskv 

INDIANA. 

I ndianapolis . 

Kvansville 

Ft. Wayne . 

Terra Haute. 

New Albany . 

La Fayette . 

south Bend . 

Richmond. 

ILLINOIS. 

Chicago. 

Peoria. 

Quincy. 

Springfield .. 

Bloom i ngton. 

Rockford .. 

Aurora. .. . 

MICHIGAN. 

Detroit ... 

Craml Rapids. 

Bay City. 

Fast Saginaw. 
Jackson . 


ror 


ILATION. 


CITIES. 


POITI.ATIOX, 


.M uskegon. 

124.0(X Lansing 
HO,OCO WISCONSIN 

2 \ 00 ( Milwaukee 

] 7 ,(i(M kaeiue. 

s,000 Oshkosh . 

(Loot 1 LaCrosse. 

! Mad iso n . 

255,00( MINNESOTA. 

100.(0( Minneapolis.. 

'* 2,000 - S L Putt! . 

.'»<».OOP M i nona. 

Stillwater 

IOWA. 

\ Lies Moines . 

Dubuque . 

Davenport. 

Burlington . 

Council BlulVs. .. . 
Keokuk. 


89,0001 

21,1 oi 

IN.OOOj 
1(5,500] 
1(5,0u( | 


7*>.00i 

29.00C 


,00o Cedar Uapids. 


2o. ok 1 Missouri. 

10.001 St. Louis. 

15.000 Kansas ( itv 
lO.OOl'iSt. Joseph 
18 000 Hannibal. 

S-dalia 

508.000 
29.00* 

27,000 
2 ". 00 ( 

17,001 
18,000 
12,000 

11(5.000 
82.000 
21,000 
19.(00 
Hi,UC0 


I Jefferson C it n 

KANSAS. 

(Leavenworth .... 

Topeka . 

i Atchison. 

Lawrence 

NEBRASKA. 

Omaha. 

Lincoln . 

Nebraska Citv. 

DAKOTA. 

Yankton . 

Dead wood. 


A NTIQUITIES. 


11.000 
8.000 

11(5.000 
1(5.000 
1(5,000 
14,000 
10 , 0(0 

47,000 

41.500 
10,000 

9,OH) 

22.500 
22,0<>0 
22,(00 
19,( 00 
18,000 
12.000 
10,000 

851.000 

50.000 

82.500 
1 1.0011 
10.000 

5,0'K) 

17.000 
15.00U 
15,000 
9, COO 

81,000 
I8.0( 9 
4,tOO 

9.000 

4,000 


3>. There are numerous remains of Antiquity in the Western 
States, which are supposed to have been the work of populous 
tribes who preceded the present race of Indians. These consist 
of mounds am! inclosures of various foims. They are found at a 
number of places in Ohio, Illinois, and other parts. Verv exten¬ 
sive works nf this kind are also found in Mississippi. The mounds 
were formerly used as burial places, and the inclosures for mili¬ 
tary purposes. 


HISTORY. 

33. The first discovery within the Western States was made by 
De Soto and his party, in 1541, who went as far north as New 
Madrid, in Missouri. The first settlements weie those of the 















































































A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


14ft 


French, in the regions of the northern lakes and down the Mississ¬ 
ippi. Kentucky was settled in 1770, and Ohio soon after. 


WESTERN STATES AND TERRITORIES. 

MAP EXERCISES. 

Capes.— Mendocino, Conception, Foul weather, Arago, Blanco, 
Perpetua, Disappointment, Greenville, Flattery, Arena, Reyes, j 

Gulfs and Bays.— Sun Francisco, Pablo, Suisan, Mentery, Shoal 
Water. 

Straits and Sounds.— Juan de Fuca, Puget Sound. » 

Islan ds. —Santa Bai bar a. 

Mountain Ranges.— Rocky, Cascade, Sierra Nevada. Coast, 
Bitter Root, Wind River, Wahsatch, Mogollon, San Ber¬ 
nardino, Blue, Humboldt, Salmon River, Black Hills, Sierra 
Madre, Little Rockv. 

Mountain Peaks.— Pike’s Pk., Long’s Pk., Fremont’s Pk., Span¬ 
ish Pks., Harvard, Yale, Lincoln, Uncampahgre, Wilson, 
Shasta, Tyndall, Whitney. Lyell, Ritter, Humphreys, Jefferson, 
Diamond, Three Sisters, Baker, St. Helens, Adams, Rainiei, 
Hood, Olympus, Pitt. 

1 i.ains. —Great Interior Basin, Great Plains ot the Columbia, 
Colorado, Llano Estacado or Staked Plain, Death Valley. 

Lakes.— Great Salt, Utah, Yellow Stone, Shoshone, Tulare, 
Owens, W alker, Klamath, Pyramid, Carson, Goose, Silver, 
Harney, Chelan. 

Rivers.— Sacramento, San Toaquin, Colorado, Columbia, Mis¬ 
souri, Snake, Yellow Stone, Grand, Green, Gila, Little Col- 
ora do, Humboldt, Pecos, Canadian, jMadison, Jefferson, Galli- 
tin, South Platte, Noith Platte, Willamette, Ow\liee, Milk. 

Cities.— Sacramento , San Francisco, Los Angelos, Oakland, San 
Diego, Stockton, Vallejo, Monterv, Salem, Portland, Ump¬ 
qua, Carson City, Virginia City, Olympia, Seatlae, Steilacoom* 
Boise City, Helena, Cheyenne, Denver, Leadvilie* Golden 
Citv, Boulder, Salt Lake City, Brigham City, Santa Fc, 
Albuquerque, Prescott , Tucson. 

Relative Position. —In what direction is Washington Ty. 
trom Nevada? trom Montana? Utah from Wvommg? from 
Arizona? from Missouri? Salem from Prescott? from San 
Francisco? from Helena? from Denver? 








A MANUAL or GEOGRAPHY. 


147 


Phavels. —What divisions would you cross in traveling by land 
from Olympia to Austin? to Denver? Sacramento: Cincinnati? 
1 race a watei route trorn San Francisco toQlvmpia;to Pekin; 
to Adelaide. 


DESCRIPTION. 


POSITION. 

1. This section of the United States is bounded on the north by 
British America; on the east by Dakota, Nebraska,Kansas, Indian 
Tei iitoi y, and T.exas; on the south by Alexico and Pacific ocean; 
and on the west by the Pacific. 

LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE. 

2. It lies between 102° and 124 0 west longitude, and between 
31 0 and 49 0 north latitude. 

EXTENT, ETC. 

3. The following table exhibits the area of each division, with 
population &c. 


NAME. 

AREA. 

l’or. ’70, POP. ’SO PER CENT. Of INCREASE. 

por. to sy. milk. 

♦California. 

.... 150,00 

582,000 

8(55.000 

85 


Oregon. 

... 94,500 

102,000' 

175,000 

92+ 

2 

Washington. 

.... 07,000 

07.000 

75.000 

213',+ 

1\, 

Idaho. 


83.000 

130— 

2-5 

Montana. 

... 14',,(K)0 

40,000, 

89,000 

90— 

% 

Wyoming.. 

. .. . 07,000 

[ 11,500 

21.000 

128— 

2-i> 

Colorado... 


47.000! 

194,000 

888 1 , 

P 7 8 

Utah. 


09,000 

144,000 

66-- 

1 7-10 

Nevada. 

. . 1 JO,000. 

58.7i 0 

62.0.X); 

46 

14-25 

A rizona . 

... 118,000 

41,700 

40,400 

decrease. 2>. 

IS 

New Mexico. 

. . . ' 122,500l 

111,8001 

120,000 

29— 

i 


♦The actual land surface is given as the area. 


COAST. 


4. There are about 1350 miles of sea-coast, of which California 
has 800, and Oregon 300. The coast is much less broken than 
that of the eastern shores of the United States, but there are sev¬ 
eral excellent harbors; the best is the Bay of San Francisco. Or¬ 
egon is rock-bound, and what few harbors she has are shallow 
and obstructed by sand-bars. Puget Sound furnishes some very 
fine shipping advantages. 




















148 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


CAPES. 

5. Some of the capes are high and rocky, and some have light¬ 
houses* 

INLETS. 

6. San Francisco, the principal, is 70 miles long and 33 wide. 
Its entrance, called the “Golden Gate,'’ is between a gap in the j 
mountains, which come down in bold precipices to the shore, j 
It is divided by straits and projecting points into three parts, the * 
northern being called San Pablo and Suisun Pays. Golden Gate j 
is about two miles wide. Puget sound penetrates Washington 
far inland and is divided into several divisions. The shores of 
these inlets are remarkably bold and large ships are able to ride 
close up to them and load and unload without the intervention ] 
of wharves. Admiralty inlet connects Juan de Fuca with Puget 
Sound. 


ISLANDS. 


7. The only islands worthy of note are the Santa Barbara. They 
are S in number and imperfectly known. Many sea-birds are 
said to inhabit them. 


GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SURFACE. 

I 

S. This, section may be comprised in three divisions. The v 
Coast Regiun, the Plateau Region, and the Rocky Mountain Re¬ 
gion. The Plateau states include Utah, Nevada, Arizona, and 
Idaho. The physical features are exceedingly varied. It is re¬ 
markable for its great mountains, and extensive plains. We find 
here boundless wastes and fertile valleys, lofty peaks lifting their 
summits far above the regions of eternal snows and yawning 
caverns with stupendous walls of rock on either side. 

MOUNTAIN RANGES. 


9. The Rocky is the chief range. In it are many passes, some 
ot which are several miles wide and of such easy grade that rail¬ 
roads can be built without difficulty. The best known are South 
Union,- Poncho, Laramie, and Bridgers passes. The Cascade ran <4 
derived its name from the numerous cascades in it in the region of 
the Columbia River. Sierra Nevada meaning “snow-clad rano-e^ 
is well known for its picturesque scenery. The Coast range Ties 
near the coast and is of less elevation than the others described 
A number of minor ranges traverse this section in different di¬ 
rections. 






A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


MOUNTAIN PEAKS. 


140 


^ 10 . The following is 

heights. 

a list of 

the principal peaks with •their 

CASCADE RANGE. 
Baker. 

. 10 . c; 00 . 

ROCKY MOUNTAINS. 

Pikes. 


Rainier .... 

. 14 , 4 . 44 . 

Loners. 


I Olvmpus . . 


Fremonts 


Hood. 

. 11 , 200 . 

I btrvard 

T « 

, s Diamond.. . 

. * Pitt. 

. . 9 , 420 . 

I T C\( \T\ 

Yale. 


Uncampahgre. 

Lincoln. 


. 

,j Jefferson . . . 

A 1 ^ V /V A/ a 

10 , 200 . 

• • H» 2 35‘ 

n Three Sisters. 

. 9 , 420 . 

Spanish. 


SIERRA NEVADA RANGE. 

AREAS OF PLATEAUS. 


t Shasta. 



. 60 , 000 . 

210 , 000 . 

Whitnev.. 

, 14 . 440 . 

15 , 000 . 

Colorado.scj. mi. 

Great Interior Basin, 

>Lvell . . . 
t Tvndall . 

1 3>- 1 7- 
x 4»386. 

Great Plains of Columbia... 

.. 20 , 000 . 

Dana. 



♦St. Helens. 





y PARKS. 

y . 11 - -The mountains of Colorado enclose a series of remaikable 
valleys, called “parks. 1 Most of them are small. Hit some of the 
larger measure 50 miles across. The best known are North, 
South, Middle, and San Louis Parks. 


NATURAL CURIOSITIES. 

12. Much of the grandest natural scenery in the world is to be 
^seen in this portion of the United States. 'From the summit ot 
Pikes Peak . the observer has a radius of 200 miles, containing 
jS©me of the finest scenery the eye of mortal lias ever beheld. 
4 be Great Canon of the Colot ado lias been described elsewhere. 

The Toscmite Falls on the Merced River of California, is per¬ 
haps, the most remarkable cataract known. In 3 perpendicular 
leaps the water falls a distance of 2,550 feet, the highest is over 

^1,300 feet. 

But nowhere in the world are so many objects of interest 
crowded into so small a space as the National Park. It abounds 
in mountains and valleys interspersed with beautiful lakes, deep 
canons and lofty cataracts, thundering geysers and peaceful riv¬ 
ers, lakes of mud and limpid waters, petrified forests, mineral 
springs, lovely parks hemmed in oil all sides by mammoth walls of 
rock; in short, almost everything that one could imagine of the 


} 





























150 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


l 


grand and sublime in nature. The Park occupies the north-west 
corner of Wyoming with small portions of Idaho and Montana, 
and was^set apart bv the United States Congress as a National 
Park or pleasure ground. It is 65 miles long, 55 wide and has an 
area of 3,575 square miles. 

Throughout this vast area are many other objects of great interest 
to the lover of nature, but which we have not time or space to de¬ 
scribe. 

LAKES. 


13. These are numerous but not large. Great Salt Lake , the 
best known, is too shallow to afford extensive navigation. The 
western shore consists of level plains of deep soft mud, traversed 
by rills of salt and sulphur-water. These plains are destitute of 
vegetation, except small shrubs, which are covered with particles 
of salt shining in the sun; curious optical illusions are here pre¬ 
sented, arising from mirage, which distorts objects in a most gro¬ 
tesque manner. 

The water contains about 20% salt, and is so heavy that a man 
cannot sink in it. In one place is a field ot solid salt, incrusted 
upon the mud, so as to bear up mules, like ice. Lake Tulare is a 
fine body of water in the southern part of California, covering an 
area of 500 square miles. Other lakes are Mono , Klamath , 
Goose, Harney, etc. Some of the lakes are celebrated for their 
beauty. 

RIVERS. 


14. There are several long rivers, but few of them furnish 
much navigation. The Columbia abounds in numerous cataracts. 
The Colorado with its deep Canons is not adapted to afford com¬ 
mercial facilities. 

The following are the chief rivers: 


NAME. j 

LENGTH. 

AREA Of BASIN 

Columbia.. 

1.400 

338,000 

Sacramento. 

350 


San Joaquin.. 

400 


Missouri.. 

2.SF6 

518,000 

Snake. 

1.050 


Yellow Stone. 

1.100 


Gila. 

050 


Grand. 

350 


Colorado. 

1,050 

223,000 

Rio Grande . 

1.800 

240,000 


MILKS OK NAVIGATION. 


with interruption 


725 

250 

120 

2.000 

100 

300 


500 

50© 


SOIL. 

15. . The soil, in general is not fertile. Nearly all the Plateau 
Region is sterile, except some of the river valleys. Good crops, 
however, may be obtained in many places by irrigation. 

The San Joaquin valley is one of the finest and most produc¬ 
tive regions in the world. The Llano Estacado lies partly in 




















A MANTA L OF GEOGRAPHY. 


151 


^ this section and is an almost tieeless region but contains some 
line pasturage upon which wild cattle and the bison feed. This 
plain covers an area of over 40,000 square miles, and is said to 
have been named from the stakes which were placed there by the 
Santa Fe traders, as land marks to guide them on their wav to 
the Gulf. 

In a region so extensive we may naturallv expect a great di¬ 
versify of physical aspects, but here there seems to he unusual ir¬ 
regularity. It embraces the ruggedest mountain peaks in the 
L nited States, their tops covered with perpetual snow, looking 
down upon deserts scorched by the summer sun; volcanic fires 
bursting from cones of eternal ice; valleys of unbounded fertility , 
and large spaces of desolate rock, sand, or gravel; might v rivers 
°f f res h water finding their way to the sea; salt lakes imprisoned 
between rocky, barren, and impassable wastes; with ridges of 
everlasting sterility , yet sparkling with profusion of choice*min¬ 
erals. 


CLIMATE. 

16. The Plateau Region has a dry climate. The western 
mountain ranges intercept the moisture laden winds from passing 
over them and distributing the rains over the sun-parched regioiT. 

On the Pacific Coast it is much warmer than in corresponding 
latitudes in the eastern states, owing to the warm ocean current. 
The climate of the interior is dry and pure, and is thought to be 
beneficial to those troubled with pulmonary complaints. The 
days here become very hot while during the night it often freezes. 
Arizona contains the hottest climate in the United States. Iu 
the extreme north the cold of the winter is severe, 

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION’S. 

17. In the cultivated regions, there are wheat, corn, barley, 
hops, pea-nuts, grapes, fruits, &c. In the southern parts 
melons of superior quality are raised. Oregon and Wash¬ 
ington are important grazing countries. These extensive plains, 
while they are not suitable for tillage, are excellent pasture 
lands. Wheat and fruits also are important crops. California 
is especially noted for her superior fruits of all kinds, and for her 
extensive vineyards. 

In most places, however, the people are chiefly engaged in the 
mines. 

Owing to the lack of moisture, the regions of the interior can 
never become great agricultural states. 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPIIV. 


U>2 


. MIXER AI S. 

18. ^ These are of great variety and of the highest importance. 
California is the first in the Union in the production of gold and 
Colorado in silver. Iron, lead, copper and tin arc found in places. 
Uoal exists in Colorado, California, Oregon, and Washington. 
Gold has been the object of the miner; other minerals have been 
very much neglected, so that we are still ignorant as to the amount 
and extent of the mineral wealth of this region. 

19. The following table exhibits the report of the gold and sil¬ 
ver yields according to the last census. 


STATICS. 


California_ 

Oregon. 

Washington . 

TVlaho..'. 

Montana ... . 
VY yoming 

Colorado. 

Utah. 

Nevada. 

Arizona 
New Mexico.. 


GOLD. 


$17,151,001 j 
1,098,000; 

13(5,000! 
1,480,000; 
1,800,OOOJ 
17,000! 
2.700.001 j 
292.00<! 
4.888.000! 
212,000 
49,000| 


SILVER. 

$ 1,1.>1.000| 
28,000 
1,000 
405.000 
2 , 905,000 

13,549,000 

4.748,000 

11 . 431,000 

2 , 320,000 

392,000) 


TOTAL. ' 

$18/802,000 
1,126,000 
137,000 
1,945.000 
4,711.000 
17,000 
19,249.000 
5,035,000 
17.319,000 
2,538,000 
441,000 


MANUFACTURES. 

-o. 1 he manufrtctures of this section are vet comparatively un¬ 

important. Those of California are the most valuable. Thev em¬ 
brace flour, lumber, woolens. California blankets are noted for 
their fineness and durability. Wines, brandies, cigars, tobacco, 
and metallic wares are also manufactured to a considerable extent! 


COMMERCE. 

2T. Several lines of ocean steamers run between San Francisco 
and other parts of the world. Extensive trade is carried on over 
the Pacific railways. 

1 he leading exports are wheat, barley, corn, fruit, raisins, wines 
brandies, gold, silver. The imports are teas from China and Ja! 
pan, coffee and spices from the . East Indies, and manufactures 
from the eastern states. 


N AT u RAT ADVANTAGES. 

22 . The pupil should be required to give these, following preceding models. 

INTERNAL I N PROVEM ENTS. 

23. 1 he l nion Pacific Railroad is the longest railway line in 
the world Numerous other roads are being built in the different 
states and territories. Steamboats ply the navigable waters 
Cities are springing up like magic, and the whole territory is 
vapidly filling up with an industrious population 















A MANTAL OF O KOG K Af’llY 




ANIMALS. 

- 4 - T lie giizzly bear, the puma, or California lion, mountain 
sheep, deer, foxes, wolf, birds of many kinds, fish &e. are the 
principal wild animals. 


IN HA BITAXTS, 

25. These consist mainly of immigrants from the eastern states 
and from Europe. There are about 100,000 Chinese . of which 
three-fourths are in California, and one-tenth in Oregon. Indians 
are still numerous, hut many of them have become either 
wholly or partially civilized. 

OCCUPATION. 

26. The absorbing occupation is. that of mining. The gold is 
is dug with rockers, pickaxes, hoes, spades, iron bars, etc. Steam- 
engines are at work, rivers are turned from their beds, and 
mountains perforated through their bowels. The dust is obtained 
by washing or sifting the sand. 

In many places powerful machines are used for crushing gold- 
bearing quartz rock. 

The fertile valleys of California, and those of other places, 
have turned many away from the mines to farming which is 
very profitable. So rapidly have the agricultural interests de¬ 
veloped that California is th£ first state in the Union in the pro¬ 
duction of grapes, barley, apd among the first in that of wheat 
corn, and fruits; the latter are among the finest in the world. 
Ot late years si/k-cultnre has received considerable attention. 
Stock-farming is largely carried on. 


LANGUAGE. 

27. Here as elsewhere in the United States, the English Lan¬ 
guage prevails. There are many foreigners who speak the lan¬ 
guage of the.country from which they have immigrated. In New 
Mexico and Arizomia the Spanish is spoken to some extent. 

GOVERNMENT. s 

2S. Four divisions of this section are states—California, Oregon, 
Nevada, and Colorado.; the rest arc territories. There is nothing 
-especially peculiar respecting their government worthy of men¬ 
tion. 

EDUCATION, 

29. Liberal provisions are made for public instruction in these 
•states. Owing to the sparseness of the population in many places, 
•there is great difticultv in providing schools. In the pnbtie 






A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


154 


schools of California, maleqnri female teachers everywhere receive 
the same pay. Here as well as in Orgeon are numerous colleges- 
and universities. The Stale Normal School of California is at 
San Jose. 

RELIGION. 

30. The same churches which are found in the older states ex¬ 
ist here. In Utah are many Mormons , a religious sect who prac¬ 
tice polygamy. 

CITIES. 

31. San Francisco . the largest and most important city, is sit¬ 
uated on one of the best and most convenient harbors in the 
world. 

It stands on a plain about a half mile wide, inclining toward the bav, with 
swelling hills behind it. It presents one cf the most remarkable examples of 
rapid growth ever recorded. In 1847 it had 450 inhabitants, while in 1880 , 
thirty-three years afterward, it numbered 234,000 souls. The temperature 
which is 56 deg. average, varies but little. Not less than 5,000 vessels fre¬ 
quent its landings every year, and its commerce extends to all quarters of the 
globe. 

Sacramento , the capital, on the Sacramento river, has fine ad¬ 
vantages for trade which have contributed mainly to its growth. 
It is n very prosperous city, well laid out with many fine gardens. 

Los Angelos , “the city of angels,” so called because of its pleas¬ 
ant climate, the beauty of its gardens, and the excellence of its 
fruits'. It is the most populous city in southern California and is 
in the midst of extensive vineyards. Oakland and Vallejo , both 
on good harbors are fine cities. J 

Denver, tne capital of Colorado, is noted for its rapid °tow th 
In 1870 the population was 4,749; in 1880, 35,620. It commands a 
hne view of snow-capped mountains, is well built and already 
contains, an immense wealth. J 

Salt Lake. City was laid out in 1S47 by Brigham Young It 
has an elevation ot over 4,000 feet and is inhabited chiefly bv 
Mormons. 


CITIES. 


San Francisco. 
Oakland. 

Los Angelos 

Vallejo . 

Sacramento. 

•Ian Jose . 

Trescott. 

Santa Ke. 

Stockton. 

Virginia City.. 


POP IT ATI ON 


284.000 
3o,00C 
11.000 
9,(100 
21.000 
19,000 
l.S0( 
0,600 
10,000 
11 ,0)0 I 


CITIES. 


Carson City. 

Olympia. 

Salem. 

Boise. 

Salt Lake City 

Helena.,.. 

Denver. 

Cheyenne. 

Lead vi lie.. 

Portia Bit. 


POPUE ATlON- 


4,200 
12,000 
2,f>00 
1.900 
21,000 
3,600 
36,000- 
3,50 O 
15,000’ 
18,000. 




























A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


155 ; 


HISTORY. 

New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, California, Utah, and the greater part 
of Colorado, belonged to the territory acquired from Mexico in the Mexican 
war of 1S46—S. This whole region was then called California. The rest of 
this section of the United States formed a part of the “Louisiana Purchase.” 
In May 1792. Captain Robert Gray, in the ship Columbia, of Boston, discov¬ 
ered and entered the Columbia River , giving it the name of his vessel. In 
1S04—5 Lewis and Clarke, under the direction of our government, explored 
the country from the mouth to the s urce of the Columbia. From 1808, the 
country was occupied by one or more of our fur companies. On these and 
other grounds, the United States claimed the territory up to the latitude of 
54 deg. 40 min. As the British traders had settled in the territority, the 
British government set up a rival claim, which caused a serious and threat¬ 
ening dispute. This was happily adjusted by treaty, in 1846, making the line 
of 49 deg. our northern boundary. In 1853 the territory was divided. 

This following takle will be found useful. 


NAM K. 

ORGANIZKI) AS TKKKITORY. J 

ADM1TTKU AS A STATK. 

California. 


1850- 

Oregon.. 

1848 I 

1858 

Washington. 

185a 1 


Nevada. 

1881 

1764 

Idaho. 

1 1883 


Montana. 

1884 


W voniing.. 

188 s 


Colorado. . 

1881 

1887 

Utah.. 

1850 


Arizona. 

1888 


New Mexico . 

1850 



ALASKA. 

MAP EXERCISES. 

Locate the following: 

Capes.— Prince of Wales, Barrow, Lisburue, Hope. 

Bays and Sounds. --Bristol, Norton, Kotzebue, Dixon, Cook's 
I nlet. 

Islands. —Aleutian, St. Lawrence, Kadiak, BaranoH, Nunivak. 

Prince of Wales, Unalaska. 

Peninsulas. —Alaska, Kenai. 

Mountains. —Alaskan, Yukon, RamanofT, St. Elias, Fair weath¬ 
er, Crillon, Wrangel. 

Rivers. —Yukon, Porcupine, Kuskoquim, Copper. 

Towns. —Sitka, St. Paul, Captain’s Haibor. 

Miscellaneous. — What is the ditection of Sitka from Behring’s 























A MANUAL OF GEOGKAI’HY. 


H56 


Strait? New York? London? What is the time of clay at 
Sitka when it is i P. M. at Columbus, O? Give latitude and 
longitude of Alaska? A traveler to Sitka finds his watch has 
gained hours. What meridian did he start from? 


DESCRIPTION 


LOCATION. 

r. Alaska (great country) is a large peninsula in the north¬ 
west corner of North America, washed by the Arctic and Pacific 
•Oceans and their branches. 


EXTENT. 

2. It extends from 130 0 to 16S 0 west longitude and from 54 0 
to 71^° north latitude. The area including the islands is about 580,- 
oco square miles. 

COAST. 

3. As much of the coast as is washed by the Arctic Ocean and 
Behring’s Sea is for the most part low and swampy, or abounding in 
shoals and sand-bars, and contains few harbors; the remaining 
coast line is mountainous with deep soundings. Cape Prince of 
Wales is a rocky and precipitous promontory, and point Barrow 
is a low sand bar extending into the Arctic. The coast line, 
without the indentions, measures,4,000 miles. 

ISLANDS. 

4. South of St. Elias is the Alexander Archipelago consisting 
of 1,100 islands. Of the Aleutian, Unimak is the largest, and 
Unalaska is of the most commercial importance. Nearly all the 
islands of this group are volcanic. 

SURFACE. 

5. The interior of Alaska has been only partially explored, 
but so far as known it is mainly a hilly plateau, with several im¬ 
portant mountain ranges; the Alaskan range is the principal 
chain. Sixty one volcanoes are said to exist in Alaska and on the 
islands, of which ten are active. In the valley of the Yukon are 
large fertile plains and extensive marshes. The country is gradu¬ 
ally rising. 

MOUNTAIN FEaKS. 

6. Mount St. Elias is regarded by some as the highest land in 
North America, its height being variously estimated from 16,000 


A manual of geography. 


157 


to 19,500 feet. Mt. Fair'veather has an altitude of about 15,000 
feet; some authors sav 19,500 feet. Mt. Crillon is a little lower. 
1 he Aleutian islands may be regarded as a continuation of the 
Alaskan range, but partly submerged. 


HIVE ItS. 

7. The principal river is the Yukon , i,Soo miles long, and nav¬ 
igable during the summer for about three-fourths its length; it is 
over a mile broad 600 miles above the delta. Several other 
streams, as the Copper , Porcupine , etc., exist; however, little of im¬ 
portance is known of them. 

Lakes in the interior are said to be numerous. 

SOIL. 

8. Owing to the severity of the climate, the soil is mostly 
sterile. Kadiak Island and several of the Aleutian Islands con¬ 
tain the best soil where oats, barley, and root crops may be 
raised. The valley of the Yukon contains much fertile land and 
excellent pasturage during the summer. A luxuriant vegetation 
is found in many places, when beneath the surface there is a layer 
of ice which never melts. 


CLIMATE. 

9. The climate is remarkable for its mildness, considering the 
high latitude. In the southern parts thick ice is not formed, and 
while the winters are fogy and dreary , the summers are sunny,, 
dry and pleasant. Great quantities of rainfall along the coast. 
Sitka is said to be the rainiest place outside of the tropics, there 
being from 60 to 90 inches of rain, and from 225 to 285 rainy 
days each year. The warm climate of Alaska is referable to the 
Warm ocean current. 


PRODUCTIONS. 

10. Heavy forests of pine, birch and poplars cover large areas. 
Cattle are raised with success; cranberries are exported, and the 
rivers as well as the sea are full of valuable fish. It is said that 
the waves and floods cast enormous quantities of fish ashore, 
in heaps sometimes three or four feet high. The agricultural re¬ 
sources can never furnish much more than what is necessary for 
home consumption. 

MINERALS. 

11. Alaska seems to be rich in minerals. Coal, iron, copper, 
lead, petroleum, amber, garnets, gold, silver, etc., have been 
found, and some of these—as iron, coal, gold,—in large quantities. 
Sulphur is believed to be very plentiful. 


158 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


ANTMALS. 

12. The bear is the largest native animal. Others are the fox, 
beaver, otter, deer, lynx, muskrat, martin, mink, and canvas duck. 

The fur-seal 5 s the chief source of revenue. Whales and other 
marine animals, peculiar to northern waters, are common. 

OBJECTS OF INTEREST. 

13. Hot and mineral springs are abundant near Sitka, on the Aleu¬ 
tian Islands, and in other parts. The fossil remains are peculiarlv 
interesting; these show that Alaska was once the home of the ele¬ 
phant, the horse, and the buffalo. Fossil ivory is obtained. 
The vegetation during the summer resembles that of the tropics 
in richness and luxuriance. 


INHABITANTS. 

14. 1 he native laces are partly Esquimaux and partlv red In- 

'dians with some intermixtures. The Whites, numbering about 
400, are chiefly Russians and natives of the United States. Total 
population, 31,000. 


EDUCATION. 

iy There are no schools, save those established by a few misr 
sionaries. The natives are nearly all Pagans and but little has yet 
been done to civilize them. 

GOVERNMENT. 

16 . Alaska is an unorganized territory of the United States and 
as yet, little subject to governmental control. 

TOWNS. 

17. Sitka is the capital on Baranoff Island. Its inhabitants (500) 
itre principally engaged in catching and curing salmon. There 
are also several saw mills, a school house and a church. St. Paul, 
on the Kadiak Island, is surrounded by the finest farming land in 
the whole territory. It is the main depot of the seal fisheries. 
Captain s Harbor, on Unalaska Island, has a good anchorage. 
Besides these several trading posts exist at various places. The 
natives in some places live in large apartments under the ground : 
■sometimes 150 live together in such a place ; these are filthy but 
preserve the inmates effectually from the weather. 


HISTORY. 

Alaska was formerly called Russian America. In 1728 
Belliings Strait was discovered by Vitus Jiehi'ing, and fully ex- 


A MANUAL OF GEOGKArUY. 


o 


15» 


plored in 17SS bv Captain Cook. In 1741 Tchirikoff discovered 
t ie Amencan coast, and upon this the Russians founded their 
claim to the country. In 1804, Sitka (New Archangel) was 
tounded. In 1825 the limits of the territory were defined by 
treaty between Great Britain and Russia. In 1867 it came into 
the possession of the United States; .$7,200,000 being paid for it 
by our government. 


DANISH AMERICA. 


MAP EXERCISES. 

Locate the following capes. —Farewell, Dan, Brewster, 
Bismark, North. 

Where is Disco island? What island on the north-eastern shore? 

In what direction from Greenland is Iceland? What waters 
on the western coast of Greenland? What separates it from Ice¬ 
land? Between what parallels of latitude do these Islands lie? 
What is the capital? Name and locate the towns of Greenland. 
What noted volcano on Iceland? What is the nature of the sur¬ 
face of Greenland? Of Iceland? What isotherm crosses Iceland? 
What ocean currents in proximity? 


DESCRIPTION. 


POSITION. 

/ 

i. Danish America is situated in the north-eastern part of 
North America and is composed of the two is'ands Greenland 
and Iceland. 


EXTENT. 

2. The greatest length of Iceland is 300 miles, and the breadth 
200. Area about 40,000 square miles. Greenland has an area of 
760,000 square miles. 

COAST. 

3. The eastern coast is almost inaccessible on account of the 
drifting ice brought down by the Arctic currents. The western 
coast is generally rocky and high, but in some places descends to 
low valleys. The coast of Iceland is very irregular except on the 
south-east where it is almost unbroken. 




1)0 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY 


The water of the numerous bays is, in general, deep and furn¬ 
ishes many fine harbors. But navigation is rendered dangerous 
by the rocky islets with which the coast abounds. 

HAYS, ETC. 

4. Baffin s bay is a large sea between Greenland and Prince 
William s Land. It was discovered by Baffin, an English Navi¬ 
gator, A. D. 1616. It can be navigated only for a short time in 
summer, on account of the ice. Its shores are mountainous. The 
water is the resort of seals and whales. 

ISLANDS. 

5* thousands of small islands surround the larger, but they are 
frozen and unimportant. Fisheries are carried on on some of 
them during the summer. 

SURFACE. 

6. The surface of both islands is high, rocky, and sterile. The 
elevated portions are covered with eternal snow and immense 
glaciers stietch toward the sea, where the overhanging masses 
frequently break off and form prodigious icebergs. 

VOLCANOES. 

/. Of these there arc many on Iceland. The mountains take 
the general name of Jokull. “ The highest is Oerafa, 6 ,409 feet 
high. Snafell, 5,965. Hecla, the noted volcano, is 5,110 feet in 
elevation. There are 30 known volcanoes, several of which are 
active, and destructive earthquakes are not uncommon. 

NATURAL CURIOSITIES. 

8. The most remarkable of these is the Great Geyser which 
throws up jets of boiling water to a height of 90 to 100 feet with 
a noise like thunder. 1 he cause of this wonderful phenomeon is 
supposed to be the Volcano Hecla, to whose fires the water finds 
access and being converted into steam produces the great display 
of power. t J 

Nowhere in the world is the Aurora Borealis seen in such 
magnincant splendor as in this portion of the globe. It is often 
so bright as to cause the stars to disappear, and mirage is common 
on the coast. 


lakes and rivers. 


9. The immense reservoirs of ice and snow furnish abundant 
supply to the many lakes and rivers of Iceland. But the former 


A MAN'UALOP GEOGRAPHY. 


1(51 


are, in general, small, and the latter are far more remarkable 
for their number than for their length. A few have a length of 
from ioo to 150 miles. \ ery few streams exist in Greenland. 

SOIL. 

10. This is, in general, sterile, but m many places would be 
capable of producing good crops were it not for the severity of 
the climate. 

CLIMATE. 

11. The climate is variable; storms of great violence frequent¬ 
ly occur. It sometimes lightens, but there is no thunder. The 
long winters are occasionally interrupted by thaws which last for 
weeks at a time. The isotherms show an average temperature 
from 32 0 to 14 0 Fall. During the summer, the sun remains 
above the horizon so long that the climate becomes warm and 
pleasant, and mosquitoes abound. 

VEGETABLE PRODUCTIONS. 

12. Mosses, lichens, grasses, and shrubs grow even in the far 
north and furnish food for the reindeer, muskox, and bear. In 
the southern portions of Greenland, the pine, elder and birch at¬ 
tain a heighth of ^ to 6 feet. Potatoes can be grown in the 
south. Forests formerly abounded in Iceland, but the island is 
now destitute of trees. The want of fuel is severely felt; the 
Gulf stream and the Polar Currents bring considerable drift-wood 
to their shores, and fine white turf is used. The soil is full of 
roots. Beautiful varieties of flowers are found. Oats and gar¬ 
den vegetables are produced in limited quantities. 

MINERALS. 

13. Iceland contains fewer minerals than Greenland. Sulphur 
is the only important product. Rock-crvstals are common. Bas- 
saltic caves occur, some of them, it is said, might well be compar¬ 
ed to Fingalfs cave. 

On Disco Island, good coal is mined in abundance and at var¬ 
ious places on Greenland are found silver, copper, iron, tin, lead, 
plumbago, zinc, arsenic, and other metals. The slates contain 
impressions of extinct tropical vegetation. 

AN IMA LS. 

14 . The principal wild animals are the white bear, which is 
large and strong, and when pinched by hunger will come to the 
cabins and attack the sctttlers. Reindeer whose flesh and milk 
supply the inhabitants with food, and dogs which are servicable 
for drawing sle<lges, are numerous. Horses, cattle, sheep, and pigs 




A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


i8i 

are raised by the Icelandic farmers. Sea-fowl are plenty along 
the coast and the seas swarm with fish. No reptiles exist on the 
land. The whale and seal-fisheries are particularly valuable. 

MANUFACTURES. 


15. There are few manufactures and these consist of the simplest 
articles of home consumption. 

COMMERCE. 

16. This is quite limited and consists in the exchange of butter, 
wool, furs, skins, fish, oil, sulphur, and Iceland mosses, for the 
few articles of necessity imported mainly from Denmark. 

NATURAL ADVANTAGES. 

17. The pupil should be required to, give the natural advantages of Danish 
America. 

INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. 

18. There is nothing like a public road anywhere to be seen. 
There are a few stone houses, but in many places the jaeople live 
in houses built from bricks made of snow. The rigor of the cli¬ 
mate is a great barrier to the development of internal improve¬ 
ments. 

I NH A BIT A NTS. 

19. The inhabitants are of Scandinavian origin, and speak a 
language resembling the old Norse. They are strongly attached 
to their country and are hospitable to strangers. There are about 
250 white inhabitants in Greenland, mostly missionaries, and 
about*’10,000 Esquimaux. 1 he population of Iceland is 71,300. 

OCCUPATION. 

20. Some of the people are engaged in tilling the soil, but the 
rearing of live-stock, hunting and fishing are the principal occu¬ 
pations. 


EDUCATION. 


21. The intellectual capacity of the Icelanders is of a superior 
order. Domestic education is general, though schools are few. 
There is one college, Iceland College, with eight professors. Near¬ 
ly a HI the valuable works of European literature have been tians- 
LVifed into their tongue and some of the natives have distinguished 
themselves for their literary attainments. 

RELIGION. 

22. “Almost all|the inhabitants are Lutherans , the whole is- 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


10 J 


land forming a bishopric.” The people are remarkable for their 
piety and devotion; great crimes are unknown anion* them. 

. 0 ! war has existed for 900years. Honesty is a prevailing prin¬ 
Attempts have been made to civilize the Esquimaux of Green¬ 
land, but when left to themselves have in variably relapsed into 
barbarism. v 


GOVERNMENT. 

- 3 ; Danish America is subject to Denmark nominally. In 1S70 
.ts independence was literally acknowledged. The constitution 
is modelled after that of Denmark. Greenland is vet to a certain 
extent controlled by trading companies managed ~bv the Danish 
crown. J 


TOWNS. 

24. Reykiavik , which signifies steam-town, so called from the 
numerous geysers and boiling springs in the vicinity, is the capi¬ 
tal. It is situated on the southern coast and has about 1,400 in¬ 
habitants. It has a college, library, and an observatory. 

L/pernavik is situated on the north-western coast of Greenland 
and is the most northern town in the world. Godhctven (Good 
Haiboi) Gothaab and. dV ezv Ifernhut ,, are the principal places on 
the western shores. 


HISTORY. 

-.v Iceland " as disco\ cied about S60 by a Norwegian pirate, and permanent¬ 
ly settled in S74. An independent republic soon arose in Iceland, which 
afforded an asylum to literature and the arts, then on the point of being over¬ 
whelmed by the general tide of barbarism on the continent of Europe. The 
Icelanders were skillful and hardy navigators. They discovered Greenland 
about the year 981; Erie Raude, the discoverer, was driven by accident upon 
the coast. 

A still more remarkable discovery, made by them, was Vineland , or New 
England, which we have already noticed. In the year 1261 the Icelanders 
submitted to Haco, king of Norway, and remained attached to this kingdom. 
In the year 1380, the island was transferred to the crown of Denmark. 
Greenland came under the Danish government in 1023. At the beginning of 
the fifteenth century there were 200 towns and villages, mostly on the east 
coast, but the whole colony, in a mysterious manner, suddenly' disappeared. 
Captain Davis, an Englishman, discovered Greenland in 15S6. No inhabitants 
were found, except the Esquimaux, but the ruins of houses and churches were 
numerous. In 1721, it was again settled. 



164 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


BRITISH AMERICA. 
map' exercises. 

Locate the following: 

Capes. —Barrow, Chidley, Charles, Bauld, Ray, Race, Gaspe, 
Canso, Bieton, North, Hurd, Churchill, Henrietta, Maria, 
Whittle. 

Gulfs and Bays. —Hudson, James, St. Lawrence, Fundy, Cha- 
leur, Mirimichi, White, Trinity, Placentia, Notre Dame, St. 
George, Georgian, Mosquito, Georgia, Boothia, Baffin, Coro¬ 
nation, Penny, Ungava, Chesterfield Inlet. 

Channels, Straits, and Sounds.— Canadian, Fox, Belle Isle, 
Northumberland, Canso, Queen Charlotte, Dixon, Tuan de 
Fuca, Hudson, Bras D’or, Melville, Lancaster, Jones, Smith, 
Davis. 

Islands,— Newfoundland, Prince Edward, Anticosti, Cape Bre¬ 
ton, Miquelon, Langley, St. Pierra, Charleton, Great Mani- 
toulon,St. Joseph, Southampton, Baffin Land, Luke, Fox, 
Banks, North Devon, Vancouver, (Queen Charlotte, Thous¬ 
and. 

Plains, Plateaus. —Arctic Plateau, Arctic Plain, Height of 
Land. 

Mountain Ranges. —Rocky, Coast, Selkirk, Wotchish, The 
Long Range, Jameson. 

Mountain Peaks. —Brown, Hooker, Lyell, Murchison, Head, 
Nelson, Logan, Murray. 

Peninsulas.— Nova Scotia, Labrador, Melville. 

Lakes. —Superior, Huron. Erie, Ontario, St. Clair, Gr. Slave, Gr. 
Bear, Athabasca, Deer, Winnipeg. Winnipegosis, Manitoba, 
of the Woods, St.John, Simcoe, St. Peter, Grand, Nipissing.. 

Rivers.— St. Lawrence, Ottawa, Maurice, Saguenay, Sorrel, 
St. John, St. Croix, Miramichi, St. Francis, East Maine, 
Abittibbe, Albany, Nelson, Severn, Winnipeg, Red River of 
the North, Saskatchawan, Athabasca, Peace, Slave, Mack¬ 
enzie, Frazer, Churchill, Rupert. 

Cities. —Ottawa, Montreal, Toronto, Hamilton, Three Rivers, 
Kingston, St. John’s, St. John, Halifax, Hearts Content, 
Sydney, St. Andrews, Dalhousie, Chatham, Charlotte Town, 
Port Sarnia, Winnipeg, New Westminister, Victoria. 

Relative Position. —In what direction is Quebec from Mon 
treal? from Halifax? St. John? Ottawa? New York? Boston? 



A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


165 


Travels.— What provinces would you cross in traveling by 
land from Winnipeg to Halifax? New Westminister? Ches¬ 
terfield Inlet? Cape Charles? Trace a water route from Otta¬ 
wa, to Halifax; to St. John’s; to Toronto; to Port Sarnia; 
to New York; to Ft. Wayne; to Glascow. From Lake 
Traverse to Big Stone Lake. 

Miscellaneous. —What provinces of British America are cross¬ 
ed by 4c; 0 north Latitude? by 48 0 ? by 50 0 ? What provinces 
are crossed lyy the meridian of Washington? by 5 0 east of 
Washington? 5 0 west? What places have the same time of 
day as Columbus, O.? Boston? What places have the same 
length of day as Paris?As Belgrade? As St. Petersburg? Where 
is a man’s shadow longest at noon on the last day of May? 
O11 what day does a man make the longest shadow at noon 
in Montreal? In what direction is Iceland from the North 
Pole? Do all cities on the meridian which passes through 
Quebec have sunrise at the same time? If not, where does the 
sun rise first? 


DESCRIPTION. 


POSITION. 

1. British America is bounded on the north by the Arctic 
Ocean, on the east bv the Atlantic, Davis Strait, and Baffin's Buy, 
on the south by the United States, and on the west by the Pacific 
and Alaska. In latitude it extends from the 42 0 to 72 0 north; in 
longitude from 55 0 to i.}i° west longitude from Greenwich. 

EXTENT. 

2. The greatest length is 3,000 miles, and greatest breadth is 
2,000 miles. Area, 3,862,000 square miles. 


PROVINCES. 

Ontario. 

| AREA. 

108,000 

1<i:L04n> 

22,000 

27,000 
2,100 
14.000 
356,000 
2,650,000 

POPULATION.! CAPITALS. 

1,913.000 Toronto. 

1,358,000 Quebec. 

441,000! Halifax. 

821,1 OOSt. John. 
lOS.ooojcharUte Pown 
50,00<) VVinnipeg. 
60,ooo Victoria. 

100,000 

Quebec . 

Nova Scotia. 

New Brunswick. 

Prince Edwards Island. 

Manitoba. . 

British Columbia. 

Territories .. 

Dominion of Canada. 

Newfoundland . 

Labrador.. 

go 

ill 

4,35l,ooo Ottawa. 
147.(HHCSt. John’s, 
7,000 

British America. 

3.862,000 

4,665,000 



























A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


166 


DISTANCES. 

From Montreal to Winnipeg, ----- 1140 miles. 

“ “ Halifax, - - - - - - 460 “ 

“ “ “ Washington, ----- 5 2 ° 

“ “ " James Bay, ----- 450 

“ “ “ St. John’s, ----- 1000 

GENERAL OUTLINE OF COAST. 

3. The coasts are very irregular and are well set with deep 
bays and commodous harbors, some of which are among the finest 
known. The Coast of I^abrador is rugged and uninviting. 
Of the northern coast we know but little that is reliable. 


CAPES. 

4. Cape Race contains a light-house iSo feet above the level 
of tite sea. There .are many other capes but none of particular 
note. 

GULFS AM) HAYS. 


5. The following is a list of the principal gulfs and bays: 


NAME. 

LENGTH. 

- 

BRK’DTH.j AREA. 

DEPTH. 

st. Lawrence. 

280 

280 80,000 


Hudson. .. 

850 

00O 400,000 

900 

.Lnnes. 

300 

175 50,000 

0,500 

Ratlin's. 

850 

400 

Georgia . 

Ungava. 

Fuudy. ■ 

110 

180 

170 

• r >0 

iooI 

30 to 50) 7,000 



The last named gulf is noted for its high tide which sometimes 
rises to a height of 71 feet, and rushes in with such velocity that 
swine are often overtaken and drowned while feeding on shell 
fish. 

SF.AS. 

6. The Lincoln and Polar seas lie to the north of British Ameri¬ 
ca. It has been thought by some that an “open polar sea’’ exists 
in the far north, where the water never freezes. 

CHANNELS AND STRAITS. 


The following is a list of the principal channels and straits: 


NAM K. 

LENGTH. 

BREADTH. 

Bell*’. Isle . . 

48 

1‘2 

Northumberland. . 

10 ( 

25 to 40 

Canso.. 

17 

2 b, 

Canadian . 


30 

Hudson. 

400 

60 to 150 



200 


'I lie first named straits are dangerous for navigation. 



































A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


llu 




S ° l,nd '* between Vancouver Island a ,*f 
11 mainl:ilul ; Melville Sound is a blanch of the Aictic. 


ISLANDS. 

9. The following is a list of the islands: 


NAM K. 


Auticoeti. 

Cape Breton. 

Prince Edward. 

Newfoundland. 

Jsle of Jesus. 

Vancouver. 


>TH. |BH 

k’dth. 

12«1 

3d 

100! 

S3 

isol 

4 to 30 

419' 

300 

2:: 

6 

27S 

30 to 65 


AREA. 


1*01*1 RATION. 


•'!.s:>() lint few inhabit'iite. 
•U-0 r«,o©i* 

2 - 12,) los.oeo 

^O.OOOj 117400a 

, S:, i io,o«o 

M.OOOl 6,0*0 


Thousand Isles, 
of Lake Ontario. 


They are about 1,50b in number, situated at the lower end 


Southampton.—Coasts 
unexplored. 


are rugged and mountainous, and the interior is 


Queen Charlotte.-Climate is agreeable and contains deposits of -mid. 
copper, iron, and coal. 


The Langley, Miquelon, and St. Pierre lie south of Newfound- 
Jand and belong to France; they are important fishing stations. 


PENINSULAS. 

10. Nova Scotia is350mileslongand 120 miles wide. Melville 
is a frozen peninsula within the Arctic circle; it is 2^0 miles lnn<r 
and 100 miles wide. Labrador is a large peninsular tract of land 
and politically attached to Newfoundland. 


GREAT BANK. 

11. The Great Bank lies to the south-east of Newfoundland and 
is coveied with water varying in depth from 100 to 600 feet. It 
iorms a part of the so called Telegraphic Plateau extending across 
the ocean to Ireland. I his is the largest and most profitable 

fishing ground in the world and during the fishing season_ 

from June till November—many thousands of people find employ¬ 
ment heie. Both cod fish and seals are taken in large numbers. 
Huge icebergs brought hither bv the Arctic currents sometimes 
lodge here. The length of the Great or .Grand Bank is about 600 
miles; breadth, 200. 


SURFACE. 

12. The middle of this extensive region consists of an extensive 
plain; in the north is the Arctic Plateau with an elevation of 1,500 
feet. The western part .is traversed by the Rocky and Coast 
Mountains. Upper Canada is characterized by a general evenness 












A: MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


I c >8 


of surface. The surface of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia is 
generally undulating. Prince Edward Island is extremely pic¬ 
turesque, but destitute of those bold features recognized in the 
neighboring provinces. Without any absolute flat surface, the 
country has no mountains, and in general the land rises into gen¬ 
tle undulations. Newfoundland is rocky and much intersected 
by rivers and lakes. 


MOUNTAIN RANGES. 

13. The Height of Land which separates the Hudson Bay sys¬ 
tem from the Lake system, terminates in the east ip the Wotchish 
Mou ntains. 

The Notra Dame Mountains trend nearly east and west and 
are found in Quebec south ol the St. Lawrence. There are num¬ 
erous smaller ranges in various parts. The Rocky and Coast 
mountains have been described elsewhere. 

MOUNTAIN PEAKS. 

14. The following is a list of the principal peaks: 

name. height. name. 

Brown.16,000. Murchison 

Hooker... 1 5,7 50. Lyell. 

NATURAL CURIOSITIES. 

15. Quebec is characterized for its romantic and picturesque 
scenery. The physical features of this province, on both sides ot 
the St. Lawrence, are varied and grand, consisting of boundless 
forests, magnificant rivers and lakes, foaming cataracts, and is¬ 
lands with rich pastures. 

The picturesque falls and natural steps of the Montmorenci in 
the vicinity of Quebec are widely known. The height of the 
former is 250 feet. The Ottawa and its tributaries abound in 
falls and rapids; the highest, called the Rideau, falls over a 
perpendicular rock 50 feet high. 

The “Boiling Pot” or the Chaudiere Falls, in the same vicini¬ 
ty, are wild and grand. “The fall in no place exceeds 40 feet, but 
the rapids extend 6 miles, and the water foams, tosses, and tum¬ 
bles among the rocks of every shape, in perpetual variety, and in 
such a manner as never to weary the eye, appearing like a multi¬ 
tude of different streams struggling for a passage.” 

The Palls of the Chaudiere on the south side of the St. Law¬ 
rence, 10 miles below Quebec, leap with a pernendicular pitch of 
125 feet down a wild chasm. The beautiful Falls of the St. Anne 
and the Thousand Isles are favorite places with tourists. 


HEIGHT. 

. .13,200. 





A MAN PAL OF (.?EOCi U A I'll V 


169 


But the grandest river scenery ■occurs in the last 60 miles of the 
Saguenay River; the banks varying in height from 500 to 1,500 feet, 
•arc not only perpendicular but often actually overhang the wat¬ 
ers below, as if to look clown upon its own grandeur. The water 
is, in some places., more than 3,000 feet deep.* 


LAKES. 


16. Ihe lakes of Canada are exceedingly numerous, dotting the 
\v hole country with numerous sheets of water of various dimen¬ 
sions and interwoven with many connecting streams. Thev 
contain many valuable kinds of fishes and add much to the rfatur- 
al beauty of the country. Some of them are noted for the trans¬ 
parency of their water-.; those of Great Bear Lake arc so clear 
that a .white object can be seen at a depth of 90 feet. Lakes 
Superior and Huron are remarkable for their transparency; rocks 
and fish can be seen at extraordinary depths. Lake Winnipeg is 
mu cl cl v and shallow. 

The following is a .list of some of the large lakes wholly within 
British America: 


NAME. 

Winnipeg . 

Great Hear. 

Great Slave . 

Athabasca. 

•Simeoe ... 

St. Peter . 

Ni pissing.. 


JTH.jBKEAIiTH. 

AKEA. 

HEIGHT. 

2i()l 

55 

0,000 

62S 

150; 

150 

14.000 

230 

800i 

50 

11,800 

23l.: 

14 

3,2<X) 

600 

ac 

JL 

500 

970 

85; 

0 

250 

50 

3* 

800 


R1VEHS. 


*/• J he rivers of British America are abundant. But, even 
in the southern parts, they are frozen over for five months or more 
each year, so that their commercial value is not great. Durino- 
the winter season boats are made to run on the ice. 


NAME. 

! LENGTH. .< 

st. Lawrence 

1,800 

Mackenzie.... 

2,120 

Athabasen .... 

1,000 

Peace. 

1,100, 

Nelson. 

350 

Haskatelmw an. 

1,660 

Ottawa . 

700 

Saguenay. 

100 

A Ibany . 

320 

Maurice . 

400 

'.Severn. 

850. 

St. John. 

45n 

Slave . 

8001 

•Churchill . . 

850 

18. Owing to the 


KKJIAKKS. 


20S,000,1,800 miles of navigation. 

442,000 Explored by Alexander Mackenzie in 1780-02. 
;Lignitic coal is abundant along its coast. 
Navigable SHHt miles. 

(Navigation almost impossible owingto rapids 
800,000;Not generally navigable. fund falls. 

S0,00i, Navigable 2i»0 miles. 

(Navigable to Ha Ha, 60 miles. 

52,000 

'High banks and mam falls. 

‘ i 

27,000 Navigable 225 miles. 

(It has two mouths. 

74,000;Contains many rapids. 

SOIL. 


British America is unproductive. Those parts bordering on the 
‘United States arc in general quite fertile and capable of produc- 



























170 


> MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 




ing excellent crops of wheat, oats, barley, rye, potatoes, etc. 

Quebec has a thin soil, and Labrador is almost sterile. New 
Brunswick and Nova Scotia contain much good land, especially 
in the river valleys. 

Prince Edward Island is noted for its fertility, and for its mild 
climate. Newfoundland contains many districts called “barrens,’ 7 
occupying the summits of hills and elevated tracts, covered with 
a scanty vegetation; but in the neighborhood of rivers and lakes 
there are valuable soils yielding profitable returns to the husband¬ 
man. According to Johnston the valley of the Grand river affords : 
excellent accomodations for a hundred thousand settlers. 

Nearly every hill contains a lake on its summit. 

CLIMATE. 

19. The climate of British America is severe and much cold¬ 
er than that of Europe on the same parallels. It is nearly the a 
same with the climates of Norway, Sweden, Russia, and the! 
south part of Iceland. The summers are short and hot, and the | 
winters excessively cold. Those parts bordering on the lakes] 
and seas, have a much more equable temperature. 

VEGETATION. 

20. d he southern portion is thickly wooded with pine, ash, j 
maple, butternut, walnut, cherry, bass, sycamore, button-wood, I 
alder, willow, cedar, tamarack, etc. Of shrubs, there are many! 
kinds, among which is the sumack. Flowery plants of great*: 
beauty abound, and among the wild fruits are cherries, pfums,I 
gi apes, currents, goose-berries, raspberries, cranberries, straw-.* 
berries, etc. Nuts of various kinds are abundant. Nearly all!, 
vegetables and fruits of the temperate climate thrive, under prop- j 
er cultivation. Manitoba is noted for its wheat. Corn will not* 
ripen except in the extreme southern parts. 

MINERALS. 

21 ' Irc T 18 abundant, and lead, tin, and copper occur in several ! 
places. The latter abounds most on Lake Superior. Silver is I 
known to exist and gold is found in limited quantities on the? 
Chaudiere River, but it exists extensively in British Columbia. 

i ew Biunswick, Nova Scotia, and Vancouver Island arcvi 
nch in coal. Marble of many beautiful varieties, lithographic 
stones, gypsum are found extensively in Ontario; the last named j 
mineral is plenty 111 New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. A pecu- 1 
liar stone or rock from which grindstones are made, is laro-elv ' 
quarried in the latter provinces. “ A 





A MANUAL OP" GEOGRAPHY. 


171 


manufactures. 

2 2 1 he manufactures of Canada are not very extensive. They 

embrace agricultural implements, carriages, "clothing, cordage 
boots and shoes, spirits, sewing machines, machinery, woolens' 
oil-cake, maple sugar, ships, lumber. 

XATURA L ADVANTAG ES. 

23 . The pupil should be required to give the natural advantages; 1 st, for 
j agriculture; 2 d, for manufactures; 3 d, for commerce. 

COMMERCE. 

24. This is important and embraces a great variety of articles. 
I he exports for i«Sbo were $92,000,000. and consisted chiefly of' 
minerals, fish, lumber, cattle, horses, tin s, agricultural products, 
carriages, boots and shoes, clothing, cordage, etc. The imports 
tor the same year amounted to $86,500,000, and were of the fol¬ 
lowing classes:—Wearing apparel, cottons, woolen, worsteds,, 

! hardware, coffee, tea, sugar, railway iron, cars, locomotives, and 
j machinery. 

I X TE R N A L IM P RO V EM E X TS. 

’ . 2 5 * There are numerous railroads traversing all the settled por- 
j tions. The two principal are the Great Western and the Grand 
I Trunk ; the latter is 1,092 miles long, and includes the Victora Iron 
! Tubtilar Bridge at Montreal, nearly two miles long. The Sus¬ 
pension Bridge over the Niagara on the Great Western is a re¬ 
markable structure. I he Wei J and C anal connecting-lakes Erie 
I and Ontario, is 28 miles long, and cost $7,638,000. Our govern- 
| ment assisted in building this canal. Several other canals exist 
I along the St. Lawrence. Steamboats are numerous and many 
excellent public buildings exist in different parts. 

ANIMALS. 

26. Wild animals, as bears, deer, wolves, boars, beavers, and 
otters are numerous, and furs form an important product. The 
humming bird appears in Canada, and the rattle-snake is not un¬ 
common. Fish are abundant in lakes, rivers, and borders of the 

, sea. 


INHABITANTS. 

27. The Indian Aboriginees are now nearly extinct and occupy 
the out-posts of the territory. The present dominant population 
is of European origin. There are many of French descent, or as 
they are locally called habitans. Irish are numerous in Xew- 
Toundland, and in the neighboring provinces. Settlements of; 



172 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


Norwegians, Swedes, Welsh, Germans, Swiss, Dutch, and Ru 
sians exist in various places. About 22,000 Negroes and 100,oc 
Indians are scattered over this immense territory. 

OCCUPATIONS. 

28. Agriculture is a leading pursuit. Canada, from the firs 
has been a commercial country. Ship building is carried on e: 
tensively. Fishing employs thousands of men. Lumbering, mil 
ing, manufacturing gives employment to many more. 


LANGUAGES. 

29. The prevailing language is every where the English, but : 
the country parts of Quebec a corruption of the French is used. 1 

GOVERNMENT. 

30. The government of Canada is modeled after that of tl 
United States, with some modifications. The Dominion of Car 
ada embraces all the provinces except Newfoundland. Tl 
chief executive is called Governor General and is appointed b 
the Crown of England. Marquis of Lome, husband of Louis; 
daughter of Queen Victoria, is the Presiding Officer at presen 

The legislative power is exercised by two houses of parliamen 
the senate and the house of commons. The senate is the upp< 
house and its members are appointed bv the Governor Genera 
The members of the lower house are elected hy the people. Th 
government of each province is patterned after that of the gene 
al government. 

The chief executive , styled the Attorney General, is appointe 
by the Governor General and holds his office during pleasure, bi 
cannot be removed from office within five years except for i 
cause. 

EDUCATION. 

31. Throughout Canada the facilities for education are excel 
lent. Numerous colleges and schools of an.higher order exis 
King's College at Toronto,- Albert University in BellevilL 
Queen’s University in Kingston, Ottawa College in Ottawa, Th 
McGill College at Montreal, and the Marrin College, of Qiiebei 
are some of the principal schools. 

RELIGION. 

32. There are many Roman Catholics in Quebec, Newfound 
land and Nova Scotia. The following statement will show th 
religious standing pretty accurately: 

Roman Catholics. 1 , 500 , 000 . Presbyterian. ^coocxi 

Church of England. 500 , 000 . Methodists.575,oo« 

There are besides a few Mormons and Mohammedans. 







IS 

10 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


171 * 


CITIES. 

Ottawa, the capital, is beautifully situated on the right bank 
f the Ottawa river. 

The parliament buildings and suspension bridge are the chief attractions, 
ft' contains manufactures of flour, cast iron, agricultural Implements, mill 
•N achinerv, brooms, wooden ware, etc. 

Quebec has an extremely picturesque situation on the St- 
awrence river. 

: It is also noted for its strong fortress, because of which it is styled the 
; Jibralter of America. There are many fine buildings and the educational 
cilities are celebrated. The streets are narrow and crooked. The com- 
erce and manufactures are extensive ; ot the latter the most important are 
*>ots and shoes, paper, leather, musical instruments, nails, cutlery, machin- 

y, ships, etc. 

ip Montreal is the largest city in the Dominion and is an immense 
iitiepot of trade. 

tl It has excellent river and railroad advantages. The manufactures are nu¬ 
ll erous and of almost endless variety. The cathedral of Notra Dame has a 
O pacity of 10,000 to 12,000 persons; its largest bell weighs 29,400 pounds. 
D( here are many other large and imposing churches. 

|f 

Toronto , the capital of Ontario, is one of the most flourishing 
^ ties in the Dominion. 

>1 It is beautifully situated on a circular bay on the northern shore of Lake 
Utario. The University of Toronto is the best in British America ; there 
p e several other noted schools. Trading, pork packing and manufacturing 
e leading pursuits. 

Halifax is situated on one of the finest harbors in the world 
id is the stopping place for vessels between the Uuited States 
id northern Great Britain. 

1 'here are manufactures of all kinds of iron castings and machinery, agri- 
ltural implements, nails, fuse, pails, gunpowder, cordage, boots and shoes,. 

ap, candles, leather, wooden ware, distilleries, etc. 

St. John, the chief city of New Brunswick, is picturesquely 
tuated on a river of its own name. 

The city is regularly laid out and well built and is the entrepot of an im- 
ense foreign and inland trade. It contains a break water constructed’ to 
tercept the violence of the waves occasioned by southerly gales. Com- 
erce, fishing and manufacturing are the leading industries. 

St. Johns , the capital of Newfoundland, is an important fish¬ 
er station. Its harbor is one of the very best. The population^ 
jcturUes greatly with the fishing seasons. 









A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


3.74 


The following list gives the names of the principal cities of the 
Dominion with population according to the last census—1881: 


NAME. 

POPULATION. 

NAME. 

POPULATION. 

’Ottawa. 


Charlottetown .... 


Montreal. 


Kingston. 


Quebec . 


Hamilton. 


Toronto. 


Three Rivers. 


Halifax.... 


Winnipeg. 

• . 3 >°oo- 

•St. John. 


Victoria. 


St. Johns.... 


London 

->o OOO 


Fredericton. 




HISTORY. 

34 - Canada was discovered by Sebastian Cabot in 1497 ; but the first set¬ 
tlement made by Europeans was in 1544 at St. Croix harbor, by .Taques Car- 
tier a French navigator, who sailed up the St. Lawrence. In r6oS a perma¬ 
nent settlement was made upon the present site of Quebec, Canada being 
then called New France. Prom this period, till 1759? the French continued 
to occupy the country ; but in that year an English army under General Wolf 
captui ed Quebec and by September, 1760, all other places within the govern¬ 
ment weie surrendered to the British. In 1774 a legislative council was ap¬ 
pointed to assist the Governor. Seventeen years later, Canada was divided 
into two separate provinces, called Upper and Loxver, with distinct legisla¬ 
tures. In 1S40 a re-union was affected, and at still later periods the organiza¬ 
tion of the government has been beneficially modified. The present Union 
was effected in 1S67. In 1663, one of the most remarkable earth-quakes on rec- 
oid occuied in Canada, in which the whole face of the country was said to 
have been changed. Rivers were dried up, lakes disappeared, mountains 
sank and lakes occupied their places; the color of the water in the rivers became 
changed and the St. Lawrence took a new course, in places ; at Three Rivers 
two mountains were thrown into the St. Laurence. 


MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA. 


MAP EXERCISES. 


Locate the following:— 

O 

Capes.— San Lucas, San Eugenia, Corrientes, Catoche, Gracias 
a Dios, Mariato, Lazaro. 

Gulfs and Bays.— Mexico, Campeachy, Honduras, Chiriqui 
Dulce, Nicoya, Fonseca, Tehuantepec, California, Sebastian. 
























A MANUAL OF GEOOKAPIIY. 


m 

Seas. —Caribbean. 

Channels and Straits.— Yucatan. 

Islands. —Tres Marias, Revilla Gigedo, Angel, Bay Is., Coiba, 
Cozumel. 

Peninsulas. —^ ucatan, Lower California. 

Mountain Ranges.— Sierra Madre, Sra de la Gigantea. 

Mountain Peaks. —Popocatepetl, Iztaccihuatl, Cofre de Perote, 
Oi izaba, T ojuca, Jorullo, Colima, San Salvador, Coseguina, 
Amilpas, Concahgua, Cbiriqui, Orosi, De Agua, De Fue^a. 

Rivers.— Rio Grande, De Santiago. De las Balzas, Verde, Sau- 
cedo, San Pedros, Yaqui, Sonora, Santander, Tamesi, Coax- 
acoalcos, Tabasco. Usumasinta, Alvarado, Wanks, Ulloa, San 
Juan. 

Lakes. —Nicaragua, Managua, Terminos, Chapala, Cayman, 
Guz man. 

Isthmuses. —Tehuantepec, Panama, 

Plateaus. —Anahuac, Bolson de Mapimi. 

Miscellaneous.— What is.the latitude of Mexico? Cape San Lu¬ 
cas? Cape Cotoche? San Jose? What is the longitude of the 
same places? What is the difference of time between Wash¬ 
ington City and Mexico? Which has the longer day on the 
ist day of January? Which to-day? What cities of the United 
States have the same time of day as Acapulco. What 
places near the tropic of Cancer? What is the distance on 
an air line from Washington to Mexico? from Mexico to 
Cane San Lucas? to New Orleans? to Cape Catoche? to 
Lake Nicaragua? 

Relative Position.— In what direction is Cape San Lucas 
from Mexico? Vera Cruz from Mexico? Matamoras? Guan¬ 
ajuato? Acapulco? Comayagua? On what water would you 
sail in going from Acapulco to Guay mas? to San Francisco? 
From Vera Cruz to New Orleans? to Yankton? to Indiana¬ 
polis? to Nashville? to Augusta? to Toronto? 


DESCRIPTION. 

POSITION. 

i. These interesting countries lie south of the United States 
and form the southern part of North America. They are washed 
on the west by the Pacific, on the east by the Gulf of Mexico 
and the Caribbean sea. The Isthmus of Panama connects Cen¬ 
tral America with South America. 







A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY 


170 


LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE. 

2. In latitude they extend from 8° to 22° north and lie be¬ 
tween the 82nd and 117th meridians west of Greenwich. 

EXTENT. 

3. Mexico measures 1,925 miles in length and from 130 to 
1,500 in breadth. Central America, 1,000 miles in leno-th and 
fiom 80 to m breadth. The area of the former is 742,000 
square miles; of the latter 175.000, square miles. 


COAST. 

4- The Gult coast contains few harbors and these are obstruct¬ 
ed-by sand-bais. In the bay of Honduras, the navigation is ren¬ 
dered dangerous by numerous reefs and keys. On the west 
coast fiom Acapulco to Guay mas is a series of fine harbors. 
Several deep inlets exist on the west coast of Central America. 
Most of the rivers are obstructed at their mouths, and both coast* 
are rendered almost inaccessible for several months by violent 
tempests. J 

CAPES. 

5 ' These aie few as the coastline presents few irregularities. 
Cape San Lucas projecting from the southern point of Lower 
California; Catoche, from Yucatan; Gracias a Dios, from Cen¬ 
tral America, are among the more prominent points. 

GULFS AND HAYS. 

6. Gulf of California is 700 miles long, and from 30 to ico 
miles broad. It contains numerous islands and valuable pearl 
fisheries along its rugged shores. The Gulf of Mexico with its 
branch bay of Campeachy are on the east of Mexico. Dulce 
IN 1 coy a, and Fonseca indent the western shore of Central 
America. 


CHANNELS. 

7- h ucatan Channel lies between Yucatan and Cuba and is 
120 miles across. 


islands. 

8. The islands are all small and of not much note. 
. are * he Principal: Cozumel, 24 miles lom>- 
Revil a Gigedo west of Mexico, and uninhabited; 
Islands in the Gulf of Honduras. 


The follow - 
and 7 wide; 
and the Bay 


PENINSULAS. 

9. Lower California is 750 miles long and from 
Area 62,000. There is much poor soil, and the 


30 to 150 wide, 
climate is hot 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


177 


though tempered in places by the sea breezes. Yucatan penin¬ 
sula containsr30,000 square miles It is very productive but desti¬ 
tute of any important rivers. 

SURFACE. 

10. This portion of America consists of a country rising in suc¬ 
cessive terraces or table lands to an elevation of S,000 or 10,000 
feet, on the top of which are placed the snow-capped peaks of 
the Cordilleras. The eastern coasts are low. 

MOUNTAIN RANGES. 

11. Several ranges cross Mexico lengthwise, but the chief range 
is the Sierra Madre, “Mother Range.” a continuation of the 
Rocky Mountains, which extend the whole length of both coun¬ 
tries. and with only a slight interruption in the Isthmus ot Panama 
reappear in South America under the name of the Andes. 
They are not so high in Central America as in Mexico. 

MOUNTAIN PEAKS. 


12. Many of the peaks are volcanic and of great height. These 
with their snow-capped summits present a grand appearance. 
Popocatepetl (the hill that smokes) and Iztaccihuatl (the white 
lady) constitute the “twin peaks/’ The top of the latter resem¬ 
bles a woman with a sheet spread over her and the Mexicans 


have a superstition that she 1 
sovereign of Mexico at the time 

The following list embraces 
height in feet. 

NAME. HEIGHT. 

Popocatepetl.17,780. 

Iztaccihuatl.15,700. 

Orizaba. 17,380, 

Cofre de Perote.13,400. 

Colima.12,000. 

Toluca ... 15,250. 


5 the wife of Montezuma , the 
of the conquest by Cortez. 

the principal peaks with their 


NAME. HEIGHT. 

Jorullo. 4,150. 

De Agua (water volcano).. . 15,000. 

De Fuego ('tire volcano).13,800 

Coseguina. 

San Salvador.9,000. 


PLATEAUS. 


13. The plateau of the Anahuac, the highest table land of 
Mexico, is on an average 7,500 feet high. Poison de Mapi 
mi is a wild and rocky district in northern part of Mexico. The 
greater portion of Central America is a table land with an eleva¬ 
tion of about 3,000 feet. 














m 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


OBJECTS OF INTEREST. 

14. These countries are exceedingly interesting in their antiqui¬ 
ties. The Spaniards destroyed most of the Mexican records, or 
picture-writings, superstitiously regarding them as cabalistic. A 
lew of these however remain, which show that they recorded 
events by paintings on skins. An ancient calendar was found, 
rarvml in porphyry; besides many other curious relics of ancient 
art. The territory of Mexico is scattered over with interesting 
vestiges of the ancient inhabitants. 

Among these is the Pyramid of Cholulu , which is the largest 
of the kind in the world. It covers 13 acres of ground, and 
upon its summit stood an ancient Aztec temple dedicated'to the 
Mexican god of Air, but it has since been replaced by a Roman 
Catholic chapel. 

Pyramids , or tcocoelh , are still numerous, most of which are 
supposed to be the work of the Aztecs. There are interesting 
ruins at Mitla, twenty-six miles east of Oxaca. Near Palenque 
on the border of Yucatan, are the ruins of a great city, amono- 
which are many beautiful and interesting sculptures. “At Uxmal 
(ooxmahl) are ancient architectural remains of great interest.” 

hese, with other ruins in Guatemala and Yucatan, were probab¬ 
ly the work of the Toltecs , who established themselves here after 
their expulsion from the Mexican valley. 


LAKES.' 


*5- There are numerous lakes of no great extent in the valley 
o Mexico, the waters of which are diminishing. Tezcuco 
the principal, lies near the city of Mexico. It is 13 miles long 
and 9 broad, and its waters are strongly impregnated with salt 
which supply a number of salt works on its banks. It contains 
the islands on which the Mexico of the Incas was built. 

The celeb ra ted floating gardens , formed by covering a sort of 
raft, composed of rushes and shrubs, with a layer of rich earth 
were formerly numerous on the lakes; but most of those now- 
called by that name are fixed, though some move from place to 


Lake Chapala, in the state of Xalisco, is distinguished for the 
beauty of its scenery. Its area is estimated at 1,300 square miles. 

Cayman or Mapimi, “alligator lake,” is the name of a small 
lake in the north. 


Lake Nicaragua lies in Cential America, and is the largest 
lake of North America south of the United States. Its vicinity 
and islands contains numerous interesting relics of antiquity. 

The lake is deep, and one of the proposed routes for an inter-oceanic 
eanal is from this lake to the Pacific, a distance of only x8 miles. 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


179 


Lake Managua, a beautiful body of water, is connected with the 
latter by the Rio Tipi tapa. The following are the dimensions of 
these lakes; 


NAME. 

LENGTH. 

BREADTH.) 

AREA. 

DEPTH. 

HEIGHT ABOVE S 

KA-LEVEL. 

Nicaragua 

9(1 

30 

6.F65 

30 to 320 ft. 


128 feet. 

Ma®agua 

40! 

in 

600 

12 to 240 ft. 


156 feet. 

Chapala .. 
Peten.... 

50 

1 

80 ; 

1,300 

80 ft. 
200 ft. 


6,400 leet. 


RIVERS. 

16. Mexico is not well watered and is almost destitute of Navi¬ 
gable rivers. Scarcely 200 miles of river navigation can be claim¬ 
ed bv this country. Nearly all the streams rise in the highlands, 
■and rush toward the sea with great velocity, forming numerous 
rapids and cascades. In drainage Central America is similar to 
Mexico. 

The following is a list of the rivers: 


NAME. 

LENGTH. 

MILES OF NAV. 

C'H A R ACT ERISTICS. 

Rio Grand. 

1,800 

500 

It is generally a rapid stream and its nav¬ 
igation is hindered bv sand-liars & rapids. 

Itio de Santiago. 

600 

24 

It is greatly interrupted by cataracts and 
is very rapid. 

Rio de las Balzas.... 

41M 


Not navigable on account of its rapids. 
Spotted Indians live upon its banks. 

Verde. 

2<M 


rids river is of no commercial import’nce. 

Tampico. 

21H 

4< 

3( 

Upper course rapid. 

Its mouth is obstructed bv sand-bars. 

Santander. 

26( 

San Juan. 

10( 


Navigable throughout by boats of 8 to 10 
;ons burden. 

Usnmasinta. 

4(K 

50 

V precipitous stream. 

Coaxacoaleos. 

1(M 

3. 

Its lower course is very smooth. 

Alverado. 

Kit 


It is a verv rapid and wild stream. 

Tabasco. 

3 (N 


[t is similar to the Alverado. 


CLIMATE. 


17. About one-half of these countries lie within the torrid zone, 
but the elevation of their surface modifies their climate in a strik¬ 
ing manner. The tierras calientes, or hot lands, lie between an 
elevation of 4,000 feet and the sea. Th z tierras templades or tem¬ 
perate lands lie between the elevations 4,000 feet and 6,000 feet. 
The climate here is perpetual spring. The tierras frias , or cold 
lands, occupy these regions having an altitude of more than 6,000 
feet. Along the coast in many places the climate is very un¬ 
healthy. The northern parts bordering on Arizona and New 
Mexico have a dry climate, and irrigation must be practiced to 
raise good crops. The tops of the higher peaks are clothed in 
perpetual ice and snow. The year is divided into two seasons; 
the rainy, lasting about four months from the end of May, and the 
dry season, comprising the rest of the year. The rains fall gener¬ 
ally in the afternoon while the rest of the day is perfectly free 
from clouds. These rains come with great suddenness and the 
water seems to fall almost in sheets. 



























180 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


SOIL. 

iS. The low plains on the coast are fertile and have a luxuriant 
vegetation. Much of the central table-land is dry and sterile, 
but in those parts which are well watered, the vegetation is re¬ 
markably rich and abundant. 

VEGETATION. 

19. Mexico is one of the most highly favored countries on the 
face of the globe; owing to the different elevations, she enjoys 
every variety of climate and productions, including all the prod¬ 
ucts of the different zones. Delicious fruits abound, including 
yams, oranges, melons, citrons, bananas, figs, &c. The maguey 
or agave is a large and thrifty plant, which yields an abundance 
of juice, made into a kind of cider, called pulque, which is a favor¬ 
ite liquor among the people. When distilled, it is an intoxicating 
bevel age, called mexical. One plant will yield six-hundred 
quarts in a season. 

The cochineal insect\ used/or producing a red dye, is raised to a 
great extent bv the Indians, who cultivate the cactus on which 
it feeds. Cotton, sugar, indigo, cocoa or chocolatenut, &c are 
extensively produced. 

The forests along the coasts display all the grandeur of tropical 
vegetation and yield many valuable woods, among which may be 
enumerated, mahogany, Brazilwood, ebony, logwood and other 
dye stuffs. 

The vegetation of Central America resembles that of Mexico. 
In the uplands of both countries there is a scarcity of forest trees* 
but an abundance in the low-lands. 


MINERALS. 

20. In the mountainous districts are the richest silver mines in 
the world, yielding about twenty millions of dollais annually 
The gold mines produce the value of about one million of dollars 
annually. These mines are not so productive as under the colo¬ 
nial government Copper, lead, tin, quicksilver, zinc, and antimony 
are plentiful. But little coal has thus far been discovered. Por¬ 
phyry, jaspei, alabaster, rock crystal, talc, arsenic salt, are found 
in various places. 


MANUFACTURES. 

21. These consist chiefly of sugar, rum, aloes, wine and brandy 
earthen and stone-ware, glass, paper, thread, olive oil. The man- 
uractures have recently, by a successful movement, begun to extend) 
and increase in importance. 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


181 


COMMERCE. 

22. The commerce of these countries is carried on chiefly 
by foreign nations. Great Britain, the United States, France, 
Germany, Spain, monopolize the principal part of the trade. 
The commerce of Great Britain with Mexico is nearly three 
times as extensive as that of the United States with the same 
country. The leading articles of export are gold, silver, copper, 
cochineal, deer-skins, hides, sisal hemp, mahogany, indigo, van¬ 
illa, sarsaparilla, cattle, jalap. The imports are linens', woolens, 
cottons, silks, wines, brandies, ornamental ware, glass, paper, 
millinery, iron-wares, salted and dried fish. 

X ATURAL ADVANTAGES. 

23. The pupil should be required to give the natural advantages of these 
countries following the previous models. 

ANIMALS. 

23. Among the wild animals are deer, buffaloes, several vaiieties 
of the cat tribe, bears. The forests swarm with porcupines, wea¬ 
sels, skunks, sloths, gluttons, ant-eaters, armadillos. The condor, 
confined chiefly to the Andes, is here seen in the Cardilleras, and 
occasionly migrates within the territory of the United States. 

Birds of gay plumage are common. Monkeys are numerous 
in southern Mexico and Central America. 

A party of these will sometimes bridge a river by forming a string ex¬ 
tending from the top of a tall tree on the one side, and then swinging the line 
across, the lower monkey catching hold of a tree on the opposite bank. Over 
this living bridge the others cross in safety. 

The domestic animals are numerous, being easily raised on the 
table-lands. Some of the chief farms contain herds of 30,000 or 
40,000 head of cattle. 

Horses and cattle were brought from the Old World by the 
Spaniards, and many are now found wild on the extensive plains. 
Alligators, caymans, and serpents infest the wooded coasts. 

I STERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. 

25. There are scarcely any public roads of note; the only real 
important one extends from Vera Cruz to Mexico. Until quite 
recently nearly all the merchandize was carried on the backs of 
mules. Numerous lines of railway are in process of construction, 
which, it is hoped, will lead to the rapid development of these 
countries. 

In a short time Mexico city will have railroad communications 
with all the important cities on both coasts of her own country, 
as well as with San Francisco, Denver, St. Louis, New Orleans, 


182 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY, 


and other cities of the United States. There are no bridges of 
an) 7 account, and the dwellings of the people, except those of the 
few wealthy, are miserable hovels. There are many elegant 
churches in the larger cities. 


INHABITANTS. 


26. About one sixth of the inhabitants are whites who are of 
Spanish origin; one half are Indians; and the remainder are mixed 
laces that is, Mulattoes , Mestizoes, or Zamboes. The descendants 
of Europeans, born in this country, are called creoles. The In¬ 
dians to a great extent have become civilized, They are, however, 
a poor and degraded race. Like their ancestors they are fond of 
flowers, and display great mechanical ingenuity. In the northern 
pai t of Mexico and in some other places, there aie many tribes 
which roam over the country and are in a savage state. 

1 he whites retain a good deal of the Spanish character; they 
are fond of show, and are addictied to expensive pleasures; to bull¬ 
fights and religious processions. An embroidered veil, costly 
fan, and valuable jewels are the pride of the ladies. The men 
love to ride 011 horses with rich trappings. 


NUMBER OF INHABITANTS. 

27. The following is a list of the inhabitants: 
MEXICO —9,908,000. 


r 

j 

CENTRAL AMERICA j 

I 

l 


NAME. 

Guatemala - - - 
Hond urus - - - 
San Salvador - - 
N icaragua - 
Costa Rica - - - 


AREA. POP'l’t’n. 

40,800. 1,191,000.. 

47,000. 352,000. 

7,300. 482,000, 

58.000. 300,000. 

31,500. 185,000. 


Among the natives in the hot lands the 
of females is noteworthy. 


174,600. 

superiority 


OCCUPATION. 


2,510,000. 
in number 


28. Mining is the great and absorbing 
on with the same skill as in the United 
foimeily productive are now abandoned. 


pursuit, but is not carried 
States, and many mines 


Agriculture is conducted without skill or'industry vet the 
products of gram, fruits, sugar, cotton, &c„ are considerable 

foreign“alUU * eX '? n8ive and is Ca,ried on chiefly by 




A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


183 


iJ Ianufactures of cotton, wool, tobacco, and ornaments in ^old 
and silver exist. 


Nearly all the 
length of railway 
miles. The public 
banditti , who rob 
beggars. 


railroads are built by foreigners. The total 
lines in operation at present is about 1,200 
highways are infested with robbers called 
travelers with impunity. There are many 


ARMY AND NAVY. 

r 29. The standing army of Mexico numbers 22,367 men. ( 1881) 
1 he navy consists ot live gunboats. 1 lie National revenue is 
$22,000,000, and public expenditures $20,438,000. 

The following table exhibits the standing of the Central Ameri¬ 
can States. 


NAME. 

ARMY. EXPORTS. 

IMPORTS 

REVENUE. 

PURL1C DEKT. 

Guatemala. 

Nicaragua. 

San Salvador.. 

Honduras,. 

2,180 $4,425,000 
44,800 2 058.000 
1,500 4,273,000 

$3,035,000 

1,470,000 

2,205,000 

$4,585,000 
2,43(5.000! 
3,27o,000 
400,000 
2,379,000 

*7.::::i.oim 

1,160.000 

706.000 

30,000.009 

7,134,000 

Costa Rico. 

, 5,307,000 



LANGUAGE. 

30. 1 he Spanish is the prevailing tongue among the white inhabi¬ 
tants, but a great diversity of languages and dialects is spoken 
among the mixed races and Indians. It is estimated that 50 
different languages and more than 150 dialects are in use. 

GOVERNMENT. 

31. M exico and the Central American States are federal republics, 
modeled after that of the United States, to a great extent. Hut 
they are not prosperous, because not well administered. A great 
deal of anarchy has existed among the different states. 

Mexico consists of27 states, one territory, (Lower California), 
and the federal district. Central America consists of five inde¬ 
pendent republics. All the presidents are elected for four years, 
except in Guatemala where six years is the term of office. 

EDUCATION. 

32. Public instruction is making considerable progress in most 
of the states. However education is still at a very low ebb and 
the great masses of the people are very ignorant. In the larger 
cities there are some advanced schools. Among the upper class¬ 
es the men are often well informed while the education of the 
women does not extend beyond a knowledge of reading, writing, 
and music. Honduras is in a very degraded condition. 





















184 


A MANUAL OP GEOGRAPHY. 


RELIGION. 

33 * The Roman Catholic religion is predominant in all the 
states, but all creeds are tolerated. The Indians mingle some of 
their ancient Mexican Idolatries with the Catholic ceremonies. 

CITIES. 


34 * Mexico, the capital and largest city ot Mexico, is situated 
in a beautifully cultivated valley 7,500 feet above the sea-level, 
and encircled with snow-capped-volcanic mountains, which af¬ 
ford a delightful picture. 

On Lake Tezcuco, winch is near the city, are extensive floating gardens, 
which supply the city with fruit and vegetables. Formerly the lake surround¬ 
ed the city, but it has gradually shrunk, so that it now is three miles from 
the city. It is surrounded by w alls and entered by gates. The houses are nearly 
all built of stone and some are noted for their costliness. To the stranger, the 
markets form a striking feature. Schools and churches are numerous. 

Vera Cruz, (the “rich city of the true cross”) is situated in a 
sandy, maishy, and unhealthy region on the I3av ot Oampeachy. 

It presents an imposing appearance from the sea and is strongly fortified. 
The streets are regular and the houses are built of coral limestone. Its harbor 
is a mere roadstead and affords very insecure anchorage. The tide here rises 
and falls only once in 24 hours. 


I iteblo, the city ot angels, 5 so named from its beautiful situa- 
ation, is noted tor its numerous and elegant churches. Some of 
them seem to be almost inlaid with gold and silver. It manufac¬ 
tures glass, shovels, pottery, earthenwares, soap, etc. 

Acapulco, on the Pacific, is remarkable for its fine harbor. 

Guanajuato contains many elegant private residences. 


Managua, the capital ot Nicaragua, is situated on the southern 
shoie of the lake ot the same name. Its environs are picturesque 

New Guatemala is in a fertile vallev and enjoys a delightful 
climate. ‘ s 

Old Guatemala, the former capital, was destroyed by an earth¬ 
quake m 1773 and 40,000 of its inhabitants perished. 

The present capital was built in 1776. The houses are generally of one 
story, with walls three feet thick on account of the frequency of earthquakes; 
they are provided with gardens and fountains. The streets' are broad, clean’ 
and straight. It contains above 60 ornamental churches besides many other 
handsome buildings. 

O 


San Salvador, the capital of the 
agreeably situated in the midst of fine 
tions, and has an active commerce and 


state of the same name, is 
indigo and tobacco planta- 
extensive manufactures. 


A MANUAL OF <»EOO I’AI’fl V. 


IS") 


Comay Cigna , tlic former capital of Honduras, contains a college. 
The country around abounds in manv remarkable ruins, and gives 
evidence that it was once the seat of a dense population. 

Tegucigalpa, the present capital of Honduias, is on a lofty 
table-land and is the largest and finest city of the republic. In 
its vicinity are mines of gold, silver, and copper. 

San yose , the capital ot Costa Rico, lies in a picturesque valley 
4 o°° a hove the level of the sea. The streets are regularly 
laid out and the houses are low and devoid of beauty. 

I opulation of the principal cities of Mexico and Central 
America. 

MEXICO. 


Mexico City.250,000. 

Puebla.65.000. 

Guanajuato.62,000. 

Morelia.30,000. 

Qiieretaro.2S,ooo. 

Colima.25,000. 

Aguas C-alientes.32,000. 

CENTRAL 


Guadalajara. . So : ooo. 

Cuernavaca.65,000. 

San Luis Potosi.40,000. 

Merida. 30,000. 

Oajaca.27,000. 

Saltillo.26,000. 

Vera Cruz.10.000. 

AMERICA. 


Guatemala.45,000. 

Tegucigalpa.12,000. 

San Jose.26.000. 


Managua.7,000. 

San Salvador. 16,000. 

Comavagua.10,000. 


11 ISTO R Y. 

35. Soon after the Spaniards had discovered America, they heard vague 
rumors. In 1519, Fernando Cortez went thither with about 600 men. He 
found Mexico to consist of a great kingdom, under the government of a king 
named Montezuma . 

The population of the country was supposed to be eight millions. The in¬ 
habitants had made great progress in civilization. 

They built large cities, with lofty pyramids, temples, and palaces. They 
cut the hardest stone, smelted and wrought copper, gold and silver, recorded 
events by paintings, and had a correct calendar. There existed a regular 
gradation of ranks in the empire; the pride and power of the nobles contrast¬ 
ing with the slavish condition of the people. 

Tenochtitlan , the capital, on the site of the modern city of Mexico, was built 
in the midst of a lake; had regular streets, and a market square, often contain¬ 
ing 50,000 people. The population was 300,000. The city was connected 
with the mainland by causeways of earth and stone, one of which was seven 
miles long. The palace of the emperor was magnificent. The chief temple 
was of vast extent; and here the b/oodv rites of Mexican superstition wer e 























186 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


performed. Human victims, consisting of captives taken in war, were sac¬ 
rificed in such numbers as to make the place seem like a slaughter house. 
On the lake around Mexico were hundreds of floating gardens, covered with 
flowers and vegetation. One hundred thousand canoes plied upon its waters; 
and along its borders were no less than fifty cities. 

Cdrtez having learned of the wealth of this empire, determined to proceed 
to the capital. Persuading large numbers of the Tlascalans to join his little 
army he marched toward Mexico. As he approached, Montezuma sent him 
. nch piesents, and endeavored to persuade him to quit the country. 

He, however, advanced boldly; and, as he entered the capital, was received 
with imposing ceremony by the king. Nothing could exceed the astonish¬ 
ment of the Spaniards at witnessing the abundance of gold, silver, and pre¬ 
cious stones. Incited by avarice, Cortez laid his plans deeplv and proceeded 
to overturn the empire. He seized the. person of the king, who soon after¬ 
ward died of a wound. A fierce conflict followed, and the Spaniards were 
driven from the city. They speedily returned, and, aided by their Indian 
allies, made themselves masters of the place. The great empire of Montezu¬ 
ma fell to pieces, and the whole country became a Spanish province. Thus it 
continued for nearly 3 oo years. In 1S10 the Mexicans rose against the Span¬ 
ish dominion; and after ten years of varying fortune, they became independent. 

In 1824 they adopted a constitution similar to that of the United States! 
Notwithstanding this, it has been perpetually distracted by civil war, pro¬ 
moted byrival military leaders aiming at dominion. 

Texas separated itself from the republic in 1835. In 1846, Mexico became 
involved with the United States, chiefly owing to a dispute about Texas 
Several battles were fought at Palo Alto on the 8th of May, and at Resacade 
la Palma on the 9 th. In both these the Americans, led by General Taylor 
were victorious. Monterey, a large town in the north, near the Rio Grande' 
capitulated to the Americans on the 24th. In March, 1847, the city and castle 
of Vera C ruz were taken, and General Scott marched toward the capital. 

n hC ° btained a complete victory over the enemy on the 17th 
of Apnl. Thence he marched onward, successively occupying the cities of 
Jalapa and Puebla. Nearly all the towns on the coast were in possession of 

the Americans. On the 17th of February, General Taylor, with 4,000 men 

force ^ UGna ViSta With 20 W beating and scattering the entire 

S f G P tember the Americans entered Mexico^and took poss- 

Bv thi, tl r r \ Ne S° tiations followed, and peace was ratified in 1S4S. 
twn ^^ the Rio Grande and Gila were fixed as the boundaries between the 

States 01101 "' 85 andiniS54 an additional territory was ceded to the United 

d J ^ N T L . AMERICA WaS COnc * uered Alverado,who was sent hither imme- 

yoke inls^i Fo n T eSt * ** in ^ Jt threw off the Spanish 

yoke in 1821 F01 two years it was united under the government of Mexico 

and in 1823 became the the United States of Central America 




A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


187 


States rights finally prevailed and they are now separate independent re¬ 
publics, but anarchy and confusion has reigned supreme. 

Belize. This province deserves special mention. It is a strip of land 
" here the British have a colony. The country produces logwood, fustic, 
braziletto, sarsaparilla, cedar, cotton, indigo, &c. Wild animals, birds, fish 
and turtle are abundant. The inhabitants are chiefly Indians and Negroes. 

Belize , the capital, has a large trade and is surrounded by a cocoanut plan¬ 
tation. 

Questions on the History of Mexico and Central America. 

Who discovered Mexico? Who was king at the time of the 
discovery? What was the condition of the inhabitants? Who 
conquered Mexico? llow long was Mexico subject to Spain? 
When did it become independent? When did Texas revolt? At 
what time did the Mexican war take place? Who were the lead¬ 
ing generals on the American side? Who, on the Mexican? 
What was the result of the war? Give the history ot Central 
America. 


WEST INDIES. 


MAP EXERCISES. 


Locate the following: 

Capes.— San Antonio, Corrientes, Cruz, Lucretia, Engano. 

Gulfs and Bays.— Buena Esperanza, Nipe. 

Channels, Straits, etc.— Yucatan, Windward, Mona. Flori¬ 
da, Great Bahama Bank. 

Islands. —Cuba, Hayti, Jamaica, Porto Rico, Greater Antilles, 
Lesser Antilles. Bahamas, Windward, Leeward, Isle ot' 
Pines, St. Andrews, Great Abaco, Cat, Great Inagua, St. 
Thomas, Guadeloupe, Dominica, Martinique, St. Vincbnt, 
Grenada, Trinidad, Margarita, Curacao, Tortuga. 

Mountain Ranges— Organ, Sierra Maestra, Cibao, Blue. 
Lake.— Salt Lake. 


Rivers.— Cauto, Artibonite. 

Cities.— Havana, Matanzas, Puerto. Principe, Santiago de 
Cuba, Kingston, Spanish Town, Port au Prince, San Do¬ 
ming©, San Juan, St. Thomas, Nassau, Spanish Port. 


Relative Position.— In what direction is Havana from 
Spanish Town ? from St.John ? from Trinidad ? from Vera 

n r tv 



188 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


Travels. —Trace a water route from Havana to St. Louis ; to 
Chicago ; to Baltimore ; to Columbus ; to Spanish Town. 

Miscellaneous. —What is the latitude of the following places ? 
Havana, Port au Prince, St.John. What is the longitude of 
the same places ? In what direction would your shadow 
fall to-day at San Domingo ? What is the distance in miles 
on a straight line from San Domingo to Havana? to St. John? 
to Spanish Town ? to South America ? to Cape Gracias a 
Dios ? What cities in the U. S. have nearly the same longi¬ 
tude as Havana ? 


DESCRIPTION. 


POSITION. 


1. The West Indies consist of a vast archipelago, lying be- 
’tween the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean sea and the Atlantic 
ocean. In latitude they extend from io° to 2S 0 north ; in longi¬ 
tude from 59 0 to S9 0 west. 

EXTENT. 

2. They extend in length 1650 miles, and 1250 miles in 
breadth. Area, 96,000 square miles' 


DISTANCES. 

Havana to New York - - 

“ “ Mexico - - 

“ “ ^ Toledo - 

“SanFrancisco - - 


COAST. 


1,400. 

1,050. 

1,360. 

2,400. 


3. There are a number of deep inlets along the coasts of the laro-er 1 

islands, and some excellent harbors. Cuba has over 2,000 miles 
of sea coast. 


CAPES. 

4. Cape Corrientes and San Antonio project from the west. J 

coast of Cuba ; Cape Creux from the south-eastern. !j 

GULFS AND BAYS. i 

5. The most important irflet is Buena Esperanza bay on the ‘ 

south-eastern coast and tributary to the Caribbean sea The n 
•other bays are mostly small. a 






A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


189 


CHANNELS AND STRAITS. 

6. The following is a list of the principal channels and straits: 

WIDTH. WIDTH, 

Yucatan 120. Florida 45. 

Windward Passage 48. Mona 80, 

ISLANDS. 

7. The following is a list of the principal islands: 


N A M K 


Cuba. 

Hirytl.. 

Jamaica. 

Porto Rico. 
Isle of Pines, 
Trinidad 
Bahama. 


LENGTH. 1 BREADTH. 

AREA. 

POPt* RATION. 

650 

50 to 60 

43,310 

1,400,000 

41 

60 to 150: 

29,837 

708.500 

140 


4,250 

50(> 

00 

68 

3,800 

636,000 

60 

55 

6(H)! 

2,000 

50 

so 

1,754 

110,000 

6(X> 


3.000! 

40,000 


There are about 1,000 islands altogether, of which 600 are contained in the 
Bahama group. 


SURFACE. 


8. More than four-fifths of the surface of Cuba is lowland , but 
it is traversed in various directions by ranges of mountains, some 
of which rise to a heighth of 7,675 feet. The centre of the island 
of Hayti is a mountain region while along the coast are extensive 
plains ; the largest is in the south-east, So miles in length. Jama¬ 
ica is diversified with mountain, hill and plain. Of the 600 Ba¬ 
hamas, but 17 are inhabited ; the surface of most of them is so 
low and flat that the waves of the sea sometimes sweep across 
them. Many of the Lesser Antilles are mere rocks projecting 
above the sea ; others are rugged and volcanic. 

MOUNTAIN RANGES. 

9. The Organ mountains intersect Cuba lengthwise ; the 
highest peak is Pico Turquino, “blue peak.” The Blue moun¬ 
tains are in Jamaica, and the Cibaoin Hayti. 

OBJECTS OF INTEREST. 


10. Many of the larger islands contain much fine scenery. The 
Pitch Lake on the island of Trinidjjl is the most remarkable phe¬ 
nomenon; it is i-£ miles in circumference and of unknown depth,, 
The pitch on the sides is hard and cold, but in the centre, fsa boili- 
ing liquid. It yields pitch and petroleum. From it a substance is 
made with which some of the streets of Paris are paved. The 
island of St. Vincent contains the remarkable volcano Soufriere, 
noted for its tremendous eruptions; its crater is 3 miles in circuit 
and 500 feet deep. 























190 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


LAKES. 

i i. Lakes are numerous but small and for the most part unim¬ 
portant. Thejargest is Enriquillo, of Hayti, 20 miles long and 8 
wide. It is salt. From some of the salt lakes considerable salt is 
obtained. 

RIVERS. 

12. The rivers are short and generally precipitous. The Cauto 
of Cuba is the largest; length 70 miles. 

SOIL. 

13. The soil ot the West Indies is remarkable for its fertility 
.and productiveness. 

CLIMATE. 

14. The climate of these islands is for a great part of the year 
mild and pleasant, the heat being in some measure moderated by 
the uniform length ot the nights, and by refreshing sea breezes. 
The average temperature ranges from 73° to 78° in the different 
parts. The seasons are divided between the wet and the dry; the 
former occuring in May and October, are of short continuance, 
and during the rest of the year the sky is clear, and the nights arc 
remarkable for their brilliancy. Some parts of Cuba are subject 
to droughts. In the interval between the months of August and 
October, the islands are visited by those terrible storms , called 
hurricanes, to which the regions of the torrid zone are liable. 

t 

They begin in various ways, but are., in general, preceded by a profound 
calm; this is soon followed by a chaos of varying elements, lightning, and 
thunder, rain, hail, and impetuous blasts of wind which move with a swift¬ 
ness exceeding that of a cannon ball. Corn, vines, forests, and houses are 
swept away before their violence which, however, is of but short duration. 
These tempests are of electric origin and serve the purpose of purifying the 
atmosphere. 


AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIONS. 

* 5 * The West Indies abound in all the productions of warm 
climates; the fruits are shaddocks, oranges, lemons, pine-apples, 
bananas, plantains, &c.; maniac, yams, maize, &c., with sugar¬ 
cane. guava, cocoa, cotton, coflee, indigo, tobacco, &c., are & the 
staple pioducts. Two crops of corn may be raised each vear. 
1 he foiests contain mahogany, lignum-vitae, iron wood, and other 
woods useful in the arts. Dye-stuffs and drugs are common. 


A MANUAL OF GEOGKAPHT. 


191 


MINERALS. 

16. Coal exists in considerable quantities in Cuba; copper is 
also abundant. The other most important minerals are, gold, 
silver, platinum, mercury, iron, tin, sulphur, manganese, antimony! 
rock-salt, bitumen, jasper, andmarble. The mineral resources are 
yet imperfectly developed in most of the islands. 

MANUFACTURES. 

17- The manufactures are limited, consisting chiefly of su^ar, 
cigars, and all kinds of prepared tobacco; the tobacco of Cuba is 
noted for its aromatic qualities and is regarded the finest in the 
world. 


COMMERCE. 

iS. The commerce of these islands is extensive and valuable, and 
is carried on chiefly with the United States, England, and Spain. 
The chief exports are sugar, molasses, leaf tobacco, cigars, coffee, 
wax, of which the United States purchases to the amount of $15,- 
000,000 annually. The leading imports are jerked-Njef, codfish, 
flour, rice, lard, lumber, wines, oats, olive oil,* coal oil. Of these 
articles, the lard, oats, lumber, coal oil, and whale oil come from 
the United States. 


ANIMALS. 

19. The wild-boar, monkeys, and lizards of various kinds are 
found. Fish are very abundant. Sea-turtle are common along 
the shores. Birds are characterized for their beautiful and varied 
plumage ajid lack of song. Macaws, parrots, wild Guinea-fowl, 
quails, pigeons, water fowl, the humming bird, mocking bird, &c.; 
are common. 


I XTERN AL IMI’ROVEMENTS. 

20. The roads formerly were very poor, but of late years many 
good roads have been built. Railroads now connect all the most 
important places. Some fine public buildings are to be seen in 
the cities, but many of the streets are ill-paved. Whole number 
of miles of railroads is about 600. 

INHABITANTS, 

21. The inhabitants of the West Indies are whites, negroes, 
and mixed races, the negroes comprise six-sevenths of the whole 
population. In the Spanish possessions two-thirds are slaves. 
The native races of these islands are now extinct. When these 
islands were first discovered by the Spaniards, they were inhabited 



192 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY 


by a mild, peaceful and numerous people, who had made some 
advancement in civilization, but they were reduced to a state of 
slavery by their cruel conquerors and worked to death. Many 
negroes were also brought from Africa and made slaves of. It is 
said that Africa was drained of not less than 40,000,000 inhabi¬ 
tants to supply the slave trade of America. Total population of 
the West Indies, 4,382,000. 


OCCUPATION. 


22, The leading pursuits are raising and gathering tropical 
fruits, agriculture, grazing, and manufacturing. But the people 
in general are not noted for industry. 


LANGUAGE. 


23. These islands are all , except Hayti,foreign possessions'and 
the inhabitants speak the language of the countries by whom 
they were colonized. The majority of the people speak Spanish. 


GOVERNMENT. 

24. San Domingo is divided into two states, each of which are 
independent republics. Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Isle of Pines 
belong to Spain. The Bahama, Jamaica, and most of the Lesser 
Antilles belong to Great Britain; Guadeloupe, Martinique, Marie 
Galante, belong to France. Curacoa, Buen Ay re, Oruba, Los 
Roques, St. Eustatius, Saba, belong to Netherlands; St. Johns, 
St. Thomas, and Santa Cruz, belong to Denmark; St. Barthole- 
mew, Tortuga, Margarita, belong to Norway and Sweetlen. 

EDUCATION. 


25. Education is at a very low ebb in most of the West Indies. 
A number of schools and colleges exist; these afford advantages 
for the upper classes; Private schools a v e supported in many 
places. About 40% ot the whites and 5% of the blacks are able 
to read and write. 

religion. 

1 % 

26. The religion is chiefly Roman Catholic, except in the Brit¬ 
ish possessions where protestantism generally prevails. 

CHIEF CITIES. 

27. Havana , the capital and chief city of Cuba, situated on the 



A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


193 


northern coast, is one of the largest and richest cities in America, 
and has one of the best harbors in the world. 

The entrance of the port is defended by two forts, and several other mili¬ 
tary works, which render Havana one of the strongest places in the world. 
The buildings are less remarkable for their beauty than for their solidity, and 
the streets, are in general, narrow, dirtv, and unpaved. There are, however, 
some fine public walks and handsome edifices. The climate is unhealthy for 
strangers. 

Sixty miles to the east is Afatanzas, a flourishing place, upon a 
fine harbor, and healthy situation. Its commerce is extensive and 
increasing. Puerto Principe , lying in the interior, is remarkable 
only for its narrow, winding, and filthy streets. 

Santiago is a flourishing place on the southern coast. Its har¬ 
bor is excellent, but the town is unhealthy. St. John the capital 
of Porto Rico, has a spacious and well fortified harbor, and con¬ 
siderable commeice. Kingston, the principal city of Jamaica, is 
well built,'with broad, straight streets, handsome houses and has an 
excellent harbor. Its commerce is extensive. Port An Prince, 
the capital of Hayti, is a well built city on a safe and convenient 
harbor on the western coast. St. Domingo is the capital of Do¬ 
minica. 


CITIES. 

Havana. 

Kingston . . . 
...St. John. . .. 
Santiago.... 
Spanish Port 


POPULATION. 

.206,000. 

.34,ooo. 

.27,000. 

.45 1 °°°; 

. 20 , 000 . 


CITIES. POPULATION. 

Matanzas.36,000. 

Port Au Prince.31,000. 

San Domingo.12,000. 

Puerto Principe. 31,000. 

Spanish Town. .6,000. 


HISTORY. 

2S. The first land discorded by Columbus in America was one of the 
Bahamas, Guanahana, now Cat Island. They remained uninhabited till 1629* 
when a settlement was made by the English at New Providence. Cuba was 
discovered by Columbus on his first voyage in 1492. It was then very popu¬ 
lous. The Spaniards made their first settlement in 1511; and in a few years 
they exterminated nearly all the natives. It has been the scene of frequent 
revolutions. Porto Rico was discovered by Columbus in his second voyage, 
In 1493. Juan Ponce de Leon planted a colony here in 1509. The natives 
supposed to number 600,000 shared the same fate as those of the other Spanish 
islands and soon disappeard under the oppressions and persecutions of their 
cruel masters. In the latter part of the 17th century, it was taken by the* 
English, blit *900 abandoned. Since then it has remained a Spanish colony. 
















191 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


Hayti was the first island occupied bv the Spaniards. The island was found 
to contain a numerous population. Harassed and oppressed beyond endur¬ 
ance, by the Spaniards the natives fled to the mountains, where they were 
pursued by dogs, and shot down by soldiers, so that in the space of a half cen¬ 
tury nearly the whole population numbering half a million had wasted away 
from the island. After this, it with other islands, was exposed to the atrocities of j 
the Buccaneers, who came in pursuit of cattle, tout afterwards became formidable !,'■ 
pirates. After the Expulsion of the Buccaneers from Hispaniola or llayti the | 
French made settlements there; and at length in 1631, the court of Spain 
■ceded to France the western half of the island, the eastern portion continuing 
to be occupied by the Spanish settlers. Such was the state of things at the 
•commencement of the French revolution. The National Assembly abolished 
slavery in all French colonies. Excited by a wild impulse, the slaves of this 
island were thrown into a state of insurrection. A scene of fearful bloodshed * 
and desolation followed. All the whites on the islands either fled or were I 
massacred. After a series of changes in government it was finally divided 
into two independent powers. Jamaica was discovered in 1493 by Colum¬ 
bus, but the Spaniards not finding any gold here, paid little attention to the 
island. It was subsequently captured by the English, and under their gov¬ 
ernment. soon rose to importance. In the heigth of its prosperity, its capital, 
Port Royal, a splendid and opulent city, was destroyed by a dreadful earth¬ 
quake. burying thousands of inhabitants in the ruins, and engulfing millions of 
wealth in the sea. 

Bermudas. —Though not strictly belonging to the West Indies, these will 
be described here. They lie to the north-east of the Bahamas and consist of 
a group of small islands, (365) and are visited by terrible storms. They have 
a beautiful climate, and the soil yields every variety of tropical vegetation. ! 
The seas around are stored with fish, turtle, and whales. The oysters on the 
rocks sometimes contain pearls. North Carolina the nearest land is 600 miles 
distant, these islands were discovered by Juan Bermuda, a Spaniard, in 
1522, but were subsequently taken by the English. Area, 19C sq. mi.; popu- | 
lation, 1 ^,Soo. 

Mil. 

SOUTH AMERICA. 


MAP EXERCISES. 


Locate the following: 

O 




Capes. —Gallinas, St. Roque, 
Corrientes, Blanco, Horn, 
Eta Aguja, Orange. 


St. Thome, Frio, San Antonio, 
Ti es Montes, Farina, St. Helena, 


Gulfs and In\\ s, Arica, Guayaquil, Choco, Panama, A enezue- 











A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


195 


GeorUe Sa ' ntS ’ Formosa ’ La * una Dos Patos, San Matins, St. 

tSLA ^^ h,d Ma ^ ari ! a ' Cu,acao ' Marajo, Falkland, Staten, 
A 1 ch nH,/ ,,e f 0 ’l Deso,at J on ' Wellington, Chiloe, Chonas 
Ai chipelago, Galapagos, Juan Fernandez, Chincha, Lobos. 

VXouxta i n Ranges.——A ndes, Acarai, Parima, Organ, Sia De 

q “ eira ’ Sla Es P inl,aco - Sra De Tabatinga, 
i neneos, Geral. ° 

vrouNTAiN Pkaks.— Stokes, Yanteles, Osorno. Cavambe, Coto- 
paxi, Chimborazo, Arequipa, Sahairn, Gualatieri, Nevado 
e bo rat a Aconcagua, Tupungata, Sarmiento, Itatiava, 
itacolumi, Itambe. - ’ 


^ akes. Maracaybo, Porongos, Bevedero, Titicaca. 

Dvers. Amazon, Rio Negro, Orinoco, Purus, Magdalena. Ja- 
pura, Madeira Jurua, Tapajos, Xingu, Tocantins. Javari, 


f T , TT ,, ^ iuutmiiis, avail 

Ucayale, Huallaga, Meta, Guaviare, Apure, Casiquiare, Pa 
rana, ban Francisco, Para, Rio De La Plata, Uruguay, Para 
• to ua y> / ermejo, Salado, Pilcomavo, Colorado, Mamore, Gua- 
pore, Surinam. 


o\\ xs. Rio Janeiro, Bahia, Buenos Ayres, Montevideo As¬ 
sumption, Santiago, Sucre, Potosi, La Paz, Lima, Callao, 
Aiequipa, Quito, Riobamba, Bogota, Panama, (Cartagena, 
Maracaybo Caracas, La Guayra, Georgetown, Paramaribo, 
Uayene, Obidos, Para, Santarem, Mendoza, Parana, Concep¬ 
tion^ alpaiaiso, Cobija. Chagres, Aspinwall, Pasto, Guayaquil. 

elative Position.— In what direction is Bogota from Cara¬ 
cas? Rio Janeiro? Lima? Montevideo? Galapagos Isles? 
Cape Orange from Bahia? Cotopaxi? Buenos Ayres? Horn? 
Gallinas? 


RAVELS.— What countries would vou cross in traveling bv land 
from Cape Horn to Panama? from Santiago to Bahia? to 
Cayenne? 1 race a water route from Assumption to Rio Ja¬ 
neiro; to Santiago; to Vera Cruz; to Chicago; to London; to 
Baltimore; to Obidos; to Olympia. 

Iiscellaneous.— Ot what does the greater part of South 
Ameiica consist, plains or mountainous country? Locate the 
principal plains. How do you account for the absence of 
large rivers west of the Andes? Give the latitude and longi¬ 
tude of all the capitals. What states are crossed by the equa¬ 
tor? what by the prime meridian of Washington? What 
countries border on the Pacific? In what direction would 
your shadow fall at noon to-day in Chili? Does the sun set at 
Rio Janeiro before or after it sets at Washington? What is 
the difference of time? How does the time at Lima differ from 
that of Washington? How did America receive its name? 


* 




196 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


DESCRIPTION. 


POSITION. 


i. (i) It is bounded on the north by the Caribbean Sea, at 
Atlantic ocean; on the east by the Atlantic; on the south by tl , 
Atlantic and Pacific; and on the west by the Pacific and Centrl/ 
America. (2) It lies between the parallels 55 0 south and i|J 
north latitude, and between the meridians 35° and S2 0 west longj. 
tude. 


EXTENT. 


2. It is 4,800 miles long and 3,000 miles wide.. 
000 square miles. 


Area is 75642 


Distances from Rio Janeiro. 


To Bogata.2,700 miles. 

To Cape Horn.2,600 “ 

To Panama.3,150 “ 


To Lima...2,300 mill 

To Obidos..15625 

To Buenos Ayres.1,250 


not 

unt 


COAST. 


3. General Outline .—The coasts of South America are le 
regular than those of North America. Few indentations ofgre 
extent exist but there are many harbors, some of which are amor 
the finest known. In some places the coast is low and mars* 
and the harbors aie shallow; and in other places along tl 
Pacific, the shores are bold and rockv. The coast lin-e measur 
16,500 miles. 


St 


ft 

ei' 


k 


id; 


ICll 


CAPES. 


4. The most prominent capes are Gallinas on the north, v 
Roque on the east, Horn on the south and Parina on the wes 
Cape Frio is a huge mass of granite 1,570 feet high; other cap 
are Orange, Corrientes, Blanco, etc. 


GULFS AND BAYS. 


IK! 

ami 

erra 


Aoc 


5. Guayaquil is in the western part of Ecuador;: Venezeula 
a shallow Gulf in the north; Arica lies west of Peru, etc. It w 
be observed that th q gulfs and bays are small and few in numbe 


SEAS AND CHANNELS. 

6 . The Caribbean sea washes the northern shores of Colut 


ie 


N 













A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


197 


a and Venezuela and affords some valuable harbors. The strait 
'Magellan is between the Tierra Del Fuego islands and the 
ain land; it is 300 miles long and from 5 to 20 miles wide, and 
difficult of navigation. Tides rise here to the height of 50 feet, 
his strait was discovered by Magellan, a Portuguese navigator, 
1520. 


;ll 


ISLANDS. 




7. The Falkland Islands are about ninety in number. They 
e cold and desolate, but important as furnishing harbors for 
haling vessels. They belong to Great Britain. The islands 
Tierra Del Fuego , or Land of Fire, received their name from 
e volcanic fires seen in them. This is the most southern inhab- 
;d part of the globe. 


They are mountainous and the soil consists of swampy peat; and, to the 
** ight of 1,500 feet, forests of beech cover the island. The coasts are rocky 
d are beset with frequent tempests. They are inhabited by a few rude, poor, 
lorant but peaceable natives, who live by fishing. They are the resort of 
II merous sea-fowl. 


* Staten land to the east has an English settlement. There are 
} tmerous islands skirting the western shores of Chili, but they 
2 for the most part desolate and sterile. The Lobos and Chincha 
lands on the coast of Peru are noted for their rich deposits of 
I jano, the offal of sea-fowl and seal. They are destitute of rain 
j d are utterly barren. Juan Fernandez lies west of Chili and 
' is for several years the solitary residence of Alexander Selkirk 
^ hose adventures gave rise to the famous Robinson Crusoe. 
jl ch copper mines are found here. 

The Galapagos , or Turtle Islands lying west of Ecuador received 
eir name from the immense tortoises existing their. These 
ands belong to Ecuador. 


v ?lkland. 

inidad. 

P irajo. 

;rra del Fuego 
lloe. 


4,700 sq. mi. 
1-754 “ “ 


2,200 


. 3,000 “ 

3 ,S 4 6 “ 


nearly. 


PENINSULAS. 


! The peninsulas of South America are few and small in size, 
e following are the chief: Paraguana from Venezuela, Ires 
tales from Chili, and St. Joseph from south eastern Argentina. 











198 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SURFACE. 


9. South America is noted for its long 1 and lofty range of G 
mountains, its numerous volcanoes, its extensive plains, great |ci 


rivers, and rich minerals. In its surface it somewhat resembles 
North America. The Andes in the west while not so broad as- 
the Rocky, are higher and more abrupt. The ranges along the 
eastern shore correspond to the Apalachians but are not quite |p 
so high. The surface may be divided into three parts—the west- I 
ern, middle, and eastern.—The western consists of an extensive I 
plateau, elevated nearly 12,000 feet above the sea-level and sur- j 
mounted by the lofty Andes. The middle lies to the east of this 1 1 
and is several times broader. Within this great belt are found the re 
Pampas of Argentina, the Llanos of the Orinoco, the plateau of in 
Guyana, the table land of Brazil, and the great Selvas of the Am- to 
azon. Ih 


Nothing can exceed the fertility and the rich vegetation of these 
regions. 

The eastern portion, embracing the eastern part of Brazil, is 


moderately elevated. 


MOUNTAIN RANGES. 


10. There are three systems of mountains in South America. 
The Andes begin in the southern part of Patagonia, and extend to- 
the isthmus of Panama, where they are connected with the meat 


they are connected with the great 
chain ot North America. Their general course is along the Pa¬ 
cific about 1S0 miles from the coast. They consist of isolated i 
peaks covered with perpetual snow. Sixtv of them are volcanic P 
and always active. Mount Sorata , in Bolivia is the highest ft; 
mountain in the western continent. The Brazilian Coast rano-- £11 
es are ot no great elevation. & L 


The Pari me mountains 
enezuela 
and Brazil. 


extend along the southern shore of 
Venezuela and the Acarai are on the boundary between Guyana 


MOUNTA IN* PEAKS. 


II. South America is especially noted for its lofty peaks. Co- l 
topaxi , Gualatiem , and Chmiborazo are among the most noted f 
volcanoes. F 

If 

The former is the most terrific volcano in the world. The noise of its f 
eruptions have been heard for more than 600 miles and flames have been seen I 
to shoot from its summit one-half mile, 






A MANTAL OF OEOURAPHV. 


199 


The following are some of the principal peaks: 


Gualatieri. 


Cotopaxi. 


Chimborazo. 


Sorata. 


Aconcagua. 


Illimani . 

IT -> •> , 44 

Potosi. 


Cavambe.... 

. -.i9>535 “ 

Sahama. 


Tolima. 


Duida. 


Andes (mean height) . . 

... 12,000 “ 


PLAIN'S, PL. 

ATEAUS, ETC. 



12. The Pampas are extensive plains of Argentina. They 
resemble our prairies. They cover an area of 1,600,000 square 
miles, and in many places are as level as the sea with not an object 
to break the monotony. During the wet season they are covered 
with a rich vegetation. Thistles grow herefrom 10 to 15 feet high. 
During the dry season they become arid wastes. 

The selvas of the Amazon is the most extensive forest region 
in the world. The trees are of the most gigantic size and endless 
variety. 

So dense are thev that it is almost impossible to penetrate them. ('limb¬ 
ing vines bearing leaves and flowers of the most exquisite beauty, hang from 
the trees. r l he whole is so completely matted together that if you should 
attempt to pull one tree away you would have to pull the whole forest. 

Birds of the most gaudy plumage, like gems in the sun light, are seen 
flitting among the branches and seem to heighten the beauty of the magnifi¬ 
cent forest. Its area is 700,000 square miles. 

The Pianos of the Orinoco occupy an extensive treeless 
region in the northern part of South America. During the rainy 
season it is avast meadow covered with the linest of vegetation to 
such an extent that it is called the “sea of grass.” Millions of 
horses and cattle find subsistence upon it. 

Before the dry season has ended it becomes a scorched and arid desert, 
and the winds whirl the dust in dense clouds. The cattle during this season 
betake themselves to the mountains and the reptiles, such as alligators and 
serpents, burv themselves in the mud there to remain in a torpid state until 
the return of the tropical rains. It has an area of about 160,000 square miles. 

The Pampas del Sacramento are vast plains in the north-east¬ 
ern part of Peru, and embrace the valley of the Ucayale. They 
cover an area of 60,000 square miles; though in most parts without 
trees, in other places they are covered by dense and magnificent 
forests. 

DESERTS. 

13. The Desert of Attacama lies on the west, between the Andes 
and the Pacific. It is a sandy sterile region, 4^0 miles long by 



















•JOO 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


about 50 in width. In this region it never rains. The Desert of 
Sechura in the north of Peru is seventy-five miles long. A large 
district of the plateau land of Bolivia is called “ the Despoblado ,” 
or “ the Uninhabited from the dryness and severity of the climate. 
The Desert of Pernambuco , in the north-eastern part of Brazil, 
consists of hillocks of moving sand, with an occasional oasis 01 
fertile spot. It is very extensive. 

NATURAL CURIOSITIES, 

14. South America is not lacking in objects of interest. The 
great mountain chains abound in gorges, deep and gloomy val¬ 
leys, magnificent cascades, sublime views. The scenery of the 
Guyanas is wonderfully picturesque. 

The Great Koietaur makes a single leap of 822 feet. 1 he 
immense “ breaks ' of the Andes are among the grandest features. 

Huge walls of almost perpendicular rock are on either side. A curious 
spectacle is to be witnessed at the return of the rainy season in the Llanos of 
the Orinoco. The moistened clay on the margins of the swamps is sometimes 
seen to blister and rise slowly in a kind of a mound: then with a violent noise 
Like the out break of a small mud volcano, the heap of earth is cast high into 
the air, and forth issues the gigantic water snake and scaiy crocodile which 
hais lain hid in the dried up mud, during the dry season. 

The extensive plains by their rich and varied vegetation are 
objects of great interest to the traveler. 

LAKES. 

15. This continent is deficient in lakes. The largest is the lake 
Titicaca , on the boundary of Peru and Bolivia; it is 240 miles in 
circuit, 600 feet deep and covers an area of 4,000 square miles. 
Evaporation, because of the rarefied air, is enormously active. 

It is the highest in South America and is one of the highest in the world, 
having an altitude of 12,900 feet abovethe sea level. There are many ancient 
ruins and the history is interesting. It empties itself through the j Desaguadero 
river into lake Aullaga. The latter is salt. 

Lake Maracaybo is sometimes called a gulf. It is situated in 
the north-western part of Venezuela, and is about 150 miles long 
and 75 wide. The water is brackish and too shallow to float large 
boats. It is connected with the sea by a channel 45 miles long and 
from 4 to 14 miles wide. 

On the north-east shore there is a mine of mineral pitch, which, during 
the hot month emits a phosphorescent light resembling lightning, and is called 
bp navigators the “Light house of the Maracaybo.” 

Lake Valencia in Venzuela is 34 miles long. There are a 
number of small shallow lakes in Argentina, but as many of them 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


201 


•entirely disappear during the summer, they are unimportant. 
Porongos and Bevedero are among the principal. 

RIVERS. 

16. South America is one of the finest watered countries on the 
globe. The Amazon though not the longest is the largest river in 
the world. It has twelve tiibutaries, each more than 1,000 miles 
in length. 

The Amazon with its tributaries affords not less than 50,000 miles of 
steamboat navigation. It has 1,500 navigable tributaries. The first 500 miles 
of its course is a continuous series of rapids, but from this the current is easy 
and graceful. At a distance of 2,000 miles from its mouth it is 3 miles wide 
and increases in width to its mouth which is an estuary 1S0 miles wide. Tides 
are perceptible 400 miles from its mouth; they usually move this distance in 
six hours, but sometimes they occupy but a tew minutes when the tide 
wave is 12 to 15 feet high, and. with a roar that can be heard 5 or 6miles, rushes 
up this whole distance with a destructive energy that carries ruin to every 
thing in its way. Such a tide is called a bore. 

The Orinoco is a deep sluggish stream with not less than 400 
navigable tributaries. 

This river has so little fall that the winds drive the waters up the stream 
sometimes causing disasterous inundations. 

During the rainy season which occurs in July and August the river is very 
hisrh. Larsre areas are covered with water and the lower vallev is converted 
into an inland sea. Near its mouth it is about 65 fathoms deep. Just above 
the deltas the river is 4 miles wide and empties its waters into the sea through 
50 mouths. 

The Rio de la Plata is a river, or rather an estuary formed by 
the Parana and Uruguay rivers. It is 170 miles wide at its mouth. 
Its waters are very muddy. The length is about 200 miles; 
with the Parana and Paraguay it measures about 2,500 miles. 

The Casiquiare joins the Rio Negro to the Orinoco. Alter 
a south-west course ot 130 miles it tails into the former. 

It is a very rapid stream but this does not prevent boats from passing out 
of its system into the others. Where it leaves the Orinoco it is 250 feet wide 
and increases in width till it joins the Rio Negro, with a breadth of 2,500 feet. 

The Paraguay and Madeira rivers have their sources in the 
same depression. During the rainy season it is possible to pass 
by boat from the Paraguay into the Madeira orTapajos, and thence 
into the Orinoco, as at this season tne bead waters are united. A 
boat may thus enter the mouth of the Orinoco and again reappear 
in the Atlantic through the La Plata. 

There are no large rivers on the western side of the Andes 
owing to the short distance to the sea. 


202 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


The following j.s 


a list of the principal rivers of South America: 


NAME. 

LENGTH. 

1 

AREA OF BASIN. 

MILES OF NAVI¬ 
GATION. 

Amazon. 

4.000 mil pc 

2,800,000 scj’are mi. 

340,000 “ “ 

1.250,000 “ “ 

250,000 “ “ 

3,000 miles* 
nearly throughout 
1,250 miles. 

900 “ 

1,000 “ 

Orinoco. 

1,550 
2,,500 
1,600 
2,000 

44 

Rio de 1 a Platta. 

u 

San Francisco. 

4b 

Madeira. 

44 

Magdalena. 

900 

2,000 

1.600 

44 

100,000 “ 

Parana. 

4 4 

oUU 

1,000 “ 

1,500 “ 

1,000 “ 

120 “ 

100 “ 

300 “ 

100 41 

Paraguay. 

44 


Tiio Negro. 

1,200 

44 


Colorado. 

Tocantins. 

1,000 

1,000 

*4 

384,000 “ 

Tapajos. 

5()0 

44 

Xingit... 

1,300 

44 



1 



SOIL. 


17. South America has a larger area of productive soil than any 
other Grand Division. It is almost every where noted for its 
extreme fertility, which is due mainly tortile warm climate and 
great abundance of rainfall. 

The Southern part known as Patagonia is sterile , as well as 
the deserts previously mentioned. 


CLIMATE. 

lb. i he climate oi South America is remarkable. In the low 
and level paits, neai the ecpiator, the temperature is always that 
ot summer. . 1 lie trees are clothed in perpetual verdure, the flow¬ 
ers are ever in blossom, and fruits ripen at all seasons. 

In those paits which are well watered, vegetation becomesexuberent, ani¬ 
mals inci ease, and reptiles and insects are multiplied without end. 

Never checked by the return of winter, animals and vegetables go on 
producing and reproducing, till the whole face of nature seems to be teeming 
with animal and vegetable life. The exhalations, which arise from the marshy 
soil and vegetable putrefaction render the air extremely unhealthv. 

In the elevated plains, the temperature is cool and delightful. 

Throughout the year, the climate has the charms of spring. In many 
places two crops of wheat and four crops of corn may be reaped in a year 
Sowing and planting can be done every day and harvests are always ripening! 

West of the. Peruvian Andes rain does not fall and thunder 
and lightning are unknown. Wheat and other grains are piled 

upon the wharves and left lying there for months without the 
least protection. 

Heavy dews tall here and so render the soil productive. Not 
a cloud is seen to disturb the serenity of the sky. 

A few year ago, lor the hrst time within the memory of man, did the peo¬ 
ple west ot the Andes witness a thunder storm. So great was their fright in 































A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


203 


their belief that the world was coming to an end, that they broke open their 
Churches and began to invoke the protection of the Almighty. 

On the mountains it is colder; at a height of 15,000 or 16,000 
feet, winter establishes perpetual dominion. 

Thus, in the same latitude, and within the compass of a dew hundred 
miles, are three distinct zones, each having its own temperature, and its own 
peculiar classes ot trees, plants and animals. 

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIONS. 

19. This continent is remarkable tor its vegetation; two-thirds 
of its sui face is said to be covered with forests. Among the 
native productions are eight species of palms, distinguished for 
their beauty and size, furnishing wines, oil, wax, flour, sugar, and 
salt; fourteen species of Peruvian bark , from which quinine is 
made, gum guavacum, Indian-rubber, cacao, vanilla, maize or 
Indian corn, the potato, cassava, and two hundred and fifty varie¬ 
ties of wood useful for carpentry and dyeing, coffee, sugar, cotton, 
indigo, and grains of various kinds are abundantly produced bv 
cultivation. 

In the rainless region wherever there is water, it islikeacon- 
servatory without glass; the most beautiful flowers and delicious 
fruits, are produced. 

MINERAL PRODUCTIONS. 

20. Granite forms the foundation of this continent. The pre¬ 
cious meta/s are abundant in Peru, Bolivia, Brazil and Chili. 

The copper mines of Chili are among the most productive in 
the world. Brazil furnishes nearly all the diamonds of commerce. 

Emeralds of the finest quality are found in Columbia and 
Venezuela. Iron and lead abound in Brazil. Coal and Iron are 
mined in. Chili. 

The mineral resources of this continent have been but partially explored 
and the future must yet reveal to the world the extent of its mineral wealth. 

COMMERCE. 

21. The commerce of South America is already considerable, 
and is carried on chiefly by foreign nations. The leading exports 
are guano, wool, nitre, copper, Peruvian bark, tin, hides, hoi ns, 
tallow, cotton, silver, diamonds, beef, Brazil wood, indigo, cattle, 
tobacco, coffee, rum, dyewood, cocoa, caoutchouc. 

The imports are machinery, agricultural implements, petro¬ 
leum, hardware, lard, dour, ice, biscuits, coal, hams, boots, shoes, 
soap, etc., from the United States; cotton, woolens, and linens 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


"204 


tirom Great Britian; wines from Portugal, Spain and France, 
About one-fouith of the exports go to England and one-fifth to 
:4he United States. Brazil takes the lead in commerce. 

NATURAL ADVANTAGES. 

22. (i) The advantages for agriculture can not be excelled. The 
-soil and climate are such as to favor the production of almost 
.every thing that grows. With but little labor the soil yields the 
richest returns. 

The advantages for coast-wise trade are not so good owing to 
the almost unbroken shore line. .Some of the harbors are very 
'fine; others are obstructed bj sand-bars and shoals. 

The climate along the coast in many places is so unhealthy that the cities 
are built from io to 25 miles from the coast upon high ground out of the reach 
-of the miasma. A few people reside on the harbor who are engaged in load¬ 
ing and unloading vessels and in transporting goods to and from the sea-port. 
Lima is six miles from the coast, Callao is its sea-port; Caracas is 12 miles 
distant from the sea, and La Guayra is its sea-port. 

The advantages for river commerce are the best in the world. 
More than 20,000 miles of the finest rivers of the globe afford out¬ 
lets to nearly every part of the continent. 

(3) Th ^advantages for manufacturing are good. An abundance 
of raw material, plenty of water power in most parts, the excel¬ 
lent commercial facilities, are the chief inducements to manufac¬ 
turing:. The want of coal seems to be the leading hindrance. 

C5 O 

INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. 

23. There are scarcely any public roads. In the countries 
among the Andes nearly all the merchandize is carried on the 
backs of mules, or Llamas, in narrow paths instead of roads. 
Travelers are carried from place to place in chairs fastened to the 
backs of Indians. Streams arc crossed on bridges made of ropes. 
Steamboat navigation is carried on to but a limited extent. A 
number of short lines of railway have been built. About 5*000 
miles in all have been completed and a number of other lines are 
projected. Many of the larger cities have public buildings of 
merit. Agriculture is carried on in a very rude style. In many 
places grain is threshed by making horses and cattle gallop over 
it. The anarchy among the governments and general lethargy of 
the inhabitants are a great hindrance to the spread of useful im« 
•provfcments. 

ANIMALS. 

24. The most remarkable animals of South America are the 
tapir, which resembles a hog, with a long flexible snout which it 
uses like the trunk of an elephant; the ant-eater, which feeds on 
..ants; the llama, resembling the camel; the jaguar, which is like the 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


205 ~- 


African panther ; and the condor, a species of vulture, and the 
largest bird of flight. Besides these there are numerous monkeys, 
parrots, toucans, alligators, and a great variety of serpents. The • 
birds are noted for their gaudy plumage. Eight species of hum¬ 
ming birds are found here from the size of a wren to that of a 
bumble bee and of such delicate colors that they seem like gems 
as they flit through the sunshine. 

POLITICAL DIVISIONS. 


25. The following are the PoliticalDivisions of South America: 


NAMES. 

AREA. 

POPULATION. 

GOVERNMENT. 

LANGUAGE. 

RELIGION. 

U.s. of Cohun 

500,000 

2.800,000 

Republic, 

Spanish. 

Catholic. 

Venezuela.... 

425,IKK) 

1,250,000 

“ 

u 


Guiana . 

4X0,000 

300,000 

Colonial. 

Eng.,Fr.,Dteh. 

Catli. & Prot. 

Brazil. 

3,140,000 

10.108.000 

Empire. 

1 Portuguese. 

Catholic. 

Paraguay- 

70,000 

325,000 

Republic. 

Spanish. 

• 4 

Uruguay . 

75,000 

300,000 

44 

“ 

** 

Chili. 

240,000 

2,000,000 

44 



Argentina.... 

812,000 

2,000,( K 'ii 

“ 



Bolivia.. 

575.000 

2,000,000 

44 



Peru. 

000,000 

2,500,000 

»» 

tt 


Ecuador_(no 

27. r >;600 

1,800,(X 0 

44 



long’r distinct) 






Patagonia. 

350,000 

4,000 

Belongs 

to Chili ami | 

j Argentina-:. 

Islands. 

100,000 

4,000 




Total. 

7, M2.000 

24 ,M)l,(Kj(r” 





RACES. 


26. The greater part of the inhabitants of South America are; 
descendents of the native Indians ;—some of these are partially 
civilized, but large tribes still wander in the savage state. 

Those who have submitted to the government are a depressed, gentle r 
ignorant race, bearing a general aspect of sadness. A tew have risen to dis¬ 
tinction at the bar, and in other professions; but in general, the oppressive- 
influence of the whites keeps them in a state of poverty and depression^ 
scarcely better than slavery. 

In Patagonia, the Indians are said to be of a very large size ; 
both men and women are nearly always on horse-back. 

Patagonian means large footed, so named by the earliest navigators; their 
feet being wrapped in skins appear very large, but in truth they have very 
small hands and feet. The men average in height nearly 6 }-» feet. 

The inhabitants of Ticrra del Fuego aredjwarfish, and seem 
to be the most miserable of the human race. There are many 
negroes and mestizoes , especially in Guiana and Brazil Ihc’ 
ruling people are the descendants of Europeans, Spaniards- and 
Portuguese; they number about one-third of the whole Population. 

ft J 

OCCUPATION. 

27. Mining is one of the leading pursuits in the mountain re* 
gions, yet many of the mines once so famous arc mo Longer work.- 



























206 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


f' 1 ;,,, 1 " Brazil and Argentina there are large ranches containin 
many thousand cattle, which are caught by lassoing them. Som 
taims have from 40,000 to 60,000 head. 

In many places agriculture is despised and people crowd the cities to lead 
miserable lives in poverty, while all the rich and inviting country round about 
them is left uncultivated. 

Manufacturing is carried on to some extent in Brazil and 
^mii. Here manufacturing and the arts receive considerable en- 
r' a !,' mellt Commerce is pursued to a very limited extent, by 
the natives Mature has done so much for this continent that 
e great bulk of the population rely almost wholly on the spoil- 
taneous productions of the soil for its subsistence. 

GOVERNMENT. 

G 2 tdnnf.!rl h , e ‘ g °Ki erm ! ,entS ° f So, ! th America, except Brazil and 
them The PUb l CS u llt i a - gre - a l deaI ° f infusion exists among 

Ino he, T Can h n- ]y be Sak t0 bc whol ’y at peace with on! 
r , 1 ' le .lesult is a \ei y slow development of the resources 

have e nea C rh Un the eS ' S ° me ° f the presidents are ele cted for life and 
nave neaily the same power as a monarch. 

Don Pmh'L'rf 11 - em P ire ’aconstitntional monarchy. The emperor 

his reio-n hJ 1 '’ ‘ S ° ne . of the best sovereigns of the age and under 
ins leign the country is flourishing and is rapidly risino- in devel- 

« and "nportance among the nations of the world Guiana 
p d 7 ' , ed among the English, the Dutch and the French. The 

Kit?,r^i;; estern portion ’ the Datcb > am. 

education. 

- 2 9 ' ^ le South America countries are in general vcrv deficient 

andtZdl? 8 ^cation. £ra « l has a nnmVer of scSs 
and a laudable effort is being made for the better education of 

order 60 But Chili ^7 a* • 6 ea Y severaI schools of a high 
, ’,t takes the lead in educational matters as in al 

United States™ Many FhV S - yStem resembles that of the 

c , \ te ' Man y public and private schools exist. Two nor- 

of teachers 4| 1 SUPP if ed by the government for the education 

Venezuela w "°f YY * cuador - bb S ' Columbia and 
V enezuela have a few schools of note for the upper classes of 

ucatton o" tCyoutEP rovisioi ' s are made for the ed- 

de e rfded?„ S a h - theg ‘T‘ ° f the inhabitants of South America are very 

been “ P ' eaSUre t0 ^ that of late active measures have 

knowledoT'Y'r • , thC countriesto aff °>'d better means of diffusing 
knowledge and of raising the standard of intelligence. ^ 


o Orq 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


207 


RELIGION. 

30* As has been shown the established religions of all the 
countries except British and Dutch Guiana, is Roman Catholic, 
but all other creeds are tolerated. Among the Indians and 
half-breeds, in some places, the religion is much corrupted by 
the intermixture of pagan rites and superstitions. The people in 
general are not noted for their morality and Christianity. 

CITIES. 

31. Rio Janeiro, the largest and most important citv of South 
America, on one of the noblest harbors in the world, is beautifully 
situated on a bay of its own name. Its harbor is 17 miles long 
and 11 miles in extreme width, with an entrance il miles wide. 
It contains many churches and other public buildings of note. 
Bahia is situated on the eastern coast of Brazil 011 one of the 
finest bays in South America. It contains more churches, con¬ 
vents and monasteries than any other city of the empire. Buenos 
Ayres is the chief city and capitol of Argentina on the La Plata 
river. Its harbor is very defective. 

Large vessels drawing 12 feet of water cannot come nearer than 5 or 6 
miles. Freight and passengers must be carried to and from the harbor in 
fiat boats. 

The city is regularly laid out with wide streets. Nearly all jhe houses 
are made of brick and painted white; nearly every house has a garden attached 

and many have balconies with lattice work containing shrubs and flowers. 

% 

Alantevideo is situated on a fine bay on the same river. It 
has extensive commerce, exporting hides, beef, feathers, Chilian 
copper and Paraguay tea. Caracas in the northern part of Ven- 
ezula, 13 miles from the sea, has a pleasant and healthful climate 
but has several times suffered severely from earthquakes. In 1S12 
it was almost entirely destroyed and 13,000 of its inhabitants 
perished. 

Buna, the capital of Peru, is one of the most enterprising 
cities of South America. 

It contains manufactories of gold lacc, fringes, glass, chocolate, paper, etc., 
a fine library of 20,000 vo'umes, a museum and a number of educational insti¬ 
tutions. 

Bogota, the capital of U. S. Columbia, is situated on a lofty 
plateau 8,000 feet above the sea level. It is surrounded bv lofty 
mountains and enjoys a climate which is perpetual spring. 

Owing to its isolated situation it has little commerce. The houses are 
very low and strongly built. In nearly all the large cities of South America 
there are street railways, but here not a vehicle is to be seen and the traffic is 
carried on in the streets by mules. It manufactures soap, cloth, and leather. 


208 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY 


Quito, the capital of Ecuador, has repeatedly suffered from 
earthquakes. 

It is situated under the equator on the side ot Mount Pichincha, 9,500 feet 
above the sea level and eleven snow capped peaks are in sight. It contains 
some fine squares. 

Lc 7 Paz, the capital of Bolivia, is nearly i2,oco feet above 
the sea level. It is the most important city of its own country. 

Santiago, the capital of Chili, is an important place. The 
houses are nearly all one story with thick walls. Earthquakes are 
common. It is well laid out with fine promenades. Sucre, form- 
erlv the capital ot Bolivia, is a cleanly city situated on a lotty 
table land, nearly 10,000 feet above the sea level. 

Assumption, the capital of Paraguay, is situated on the left 
bank of the Paraguay river, nearly i,oco miles from its mouth. 

It is a neat and cleanly city, founded by the Spaniards in 1535, and from 
its advantageous position, in a few years became a city of importance. Hides, 
tobacco, cedar, and inandica are the chief articles of trade. 

Potosi, of Bolivia is noted for its rich silver mines, though 
not so productive as formerly owing to a want of proper machin¬ 
ery for working the mines. 

Pasco , of Peru, nearly 14,000 feet above the sea level, is the 
highest city of the globe, and is surrounded by rich silver mines. 
Popayan is the oldest city in S. A. founded by Europeans. 


CITIES. 


Guayaquil... 
Rio Janeiro... 

Bahia... 

Sucre. 

La Paz. 

Potosi... 

Buenos Ayres 
Santiago. 
Montevideo.. 
Assumption. 


POPULATION, 

CITIES. 

POPULATION. 

22,(00 

Maracaybo.. 

22,000 

275,000 

Bogota.*.. 

50,000 

129,000 

Caracas. 

49,000 

24,000 

Georgetown. 

37,000 

70,000 

Paramaribo. 

22,000 

26,000 

200,000 

Cayenne . 

Quito. 

10,000 

70.000 

II 

1 .ima... 

Cuzco... 

100,000 

50.000 

30,000 

Pernambuco. 

117,000 


HISTORY. 


South America was discovered by Christopher Columbus in his third vov- 
age to America in 1492. He landed at the mouth of the Orinoco river, 

The following year some Spanish explorers visited the northern shores, 
among whom was one named Amerigo Vespuci, (A-mao-re-go Ves-poot-she) 
who published an account of the voyage, in 1500, and gave his name to the 
whole country. It was not known at the time that America was a continent 
until in 1513 Balboa , a Spaniard, crossed the isthmus of Darien and first saw 
the Pacific Ocean. The waters were called Pacific from their tranquil charac¬ 
ter but it was afterwards found to be subject to violent storms. 






























A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


209 

In 1520 Magellan passed through the strait which bears his name and 
visited some of the Pacific shores. His fleet was the first to circumnavigate 
the globe. 0 

Nearly the whole of South America for three centuries, was divided be¬ 
tween Spain and Portugal . The Spaniards, on the discovery of South 
America, found it in the possession of various tribes of Indians , generally of 
a more gentle and less warlike disposition than those who inhabited North 
America. 1 l ey were evidently of the same race, but they were influenced 
by the solter climate, and their vigor and courage had become subdued. With 
the cross in one hand and the sword in the other, the ruthless invaders took 
possession of the land. Peru, a populous empire of partly civilized people, 
was conquered by Pizarro. in 1535, by a series of treacherous though intrepid 
acts, scarcely paralled in the history of mankind. 

The whole peninsula of South America fell into the power of European 
go\ernments. Spain took possession of the greater part and Portugal of a 
large tract on the east. For three centuries the country remained in the 
possession of these two powers with the exception of Guiana. Finally the 
colonies taking advantage ot the disturbed condition of the mother country 
obtained their independence between the years 1819 and 1829. War and in¬ 
ternal dissentions have retarded their growth, but a marked change is taking 
place for the better. 


BRAZIL. 


MAP EXERCISES. 

Capes.— Orange, St. Roque, St. Thome, Frio. 

Gulfs and Bays.— All Saints, Formosa. 

Islands.— Marajo, St. Catharine, Bananal. 

Mountain Ranges.— Organ, Sierra De Mar, Sra de Espinhaco, 
Sra Mantiqueira, Geral, Fireneos, Acarai, Parime. 

Mountain Peaks.— Itatiaya, Itacalumi, Itambe. 

Rivers. —Amazon, Para, Tocantins, Xingu, Tapajos, Madeira, 
Purus, Japura, Rio Negro, Branco, Paranahyba, San Fran¬ 
cisco, Parana, Paraguay, Uruguay, Guapore. 

Cities. —Rio Janeiro, Bahia, Pernambuco, Maranham, Miranda, 
\ ilia Bella, Para, Natal, Santarem, Obidos, Diamantina. 

Relative Position.— In * what direction is Rio Janeiro from 
Para? from Obidos? Diamantina? Bahia? New York? 

Travels.— Trace a water route from Rio Janeiro to Santarem; 
to Buenos Ayres; Vera Cruz; Cincinnati. 

Miscellaneous. —What is the difference of time between Rio 
Janeiro and New York? In what direction would your 
shadow fall to-day at Bahia? Stale the latitude and longitude 
of the three largest cities of Brazil. What isotherms crossBrazil? 





210 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


What is the difference of time between the extreme eastern and 
western points of Brazil? By the scale of miles what is the dis¬ 
tance from Para to Bahia? to Montevideo? to the boundary 
of Bolivia? to the mouth of the Madeira? How many parallels 
cross Brazil? How many meridians? 


DESCRIPTION. 

POSITION. 

1. Brazil embraces the largest contiguous area of any country 
in the world, except Russia. It is bounded on the east and south 
by the Atlantic ocean, and on the other sides by every country of 
South America, Chili being excepted. 

LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE. 

2. It extends in latitude from 4 0 36 min. north to 33 0 south, 
and in longitude from 35 0 to 73 0 west. 


EXTENT. 

3. Brazil occupies nearly one-half ot South America. Its 
greatest length is 2,600 miles; greatest breadth 2,470. Area 3,140,- 
000 square miles. 

COAST. 

4. The coast line of Brazil measures nearly 3,800 miles: it is 
not deeply indented by gulfs and bays but is very irregular. Many 
of its harbors rank among the finest in the world. 


ISLANDS. 

5. The only island of importance is Marajo , noted for its pro¬ 
ductions of rice and cattle. A few smaller islands exist along the 
coast. 

SURFACE. 

6. The eastern and south-eastern parts aie hilly and mountain¬ 
ous. The most easterly range is the Sierra de Mar or Brazilian 
Andes. The highest peak is 4,160 feet. Further west lies the Srade 
Espmhaco . Its loftiest is Itacolumi, 6,17^ feet high. The Geral 
are 011 the west. Many ranges as shown on the map, are mere 
flat watersheds. 

PLAINS. 

7. The interior consists of extensive plains, the most remark¬ 
able of which is the Selvas of the Amazon. It is covered with a 
luxuriant and gigantic vegetation to which the hot and humid 
climate gives an astonishing vigor. 







A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


211 


The immense and impenetrable forests and mighty streams of this great 
plain swarm with animal life in all its forms. Ferocious beasts of prey, huge 
serpents, alligators, troops of monkeys, flocks of gaudy colored and loquacious 
birds, and clouds of insects, are here yet undisturbed by the arts of man. The 
•country is characterized by frequent thunder storms and torrents of rain, 
•which occur in the morning after cloudless nights. 

OBJECTS OF INTEREST. 

8. Though this country does not abound in lofty water-falls, 
•gigantic caves, and magnificant mountain scenery, as some ot the 
other parts of the world, yet it is not lacking in objects of interest. 
To the stranger, the mammoth forests , the remarkable vegetation, 
the profuse and beautiful flowers and birds, the mighty Amazon, 
are sources of ceaseless wonder. In the valley of the upper San 
Francisco are vast limestone caverns , containing many bones of 
•extinct animals such as the megatherium, and mastodon. 

RIVERS. 

9. The mightiest river on the globe, the Amazon , drains the 
greater portion of Brazil. 

A fiver of such prodigious size that near its mouth you may sail on it 
.and be out of sight of land, and a thousand miles above the mouth when on 
the middle of the stream the trees on the banks are just on the edge3of the 
horizon. 

The principal tributaries on the north are the Rio Negro , 
Jahura, and Pidumayo. On the south are the Tocantins , Tapa- 
jos, Xingu , Madeira, Purus and Jurua, which in themselves 
rank with the largest rivers of the world. The San Francisco 
and the Paranahyba empty into the Atlantic, and are valuable 
for their commercial importance. 

The learner will observe that Brazil is one of the finest water¬ 
ed portions of the globe. 

LAKES. 

10 There are many small lakes in the south, the largest of which 
ar ePatos and Mirim along the coast. They are really branches 
of the Atlantic. The former is 140 miles long and 40 wide; the 
the latter, ico miles long and 30 wide. 

SOIL. 

11. In the west near the Geral Mountains, are the Campos 
Parexis, forming a sandv and barren desert. The larger part of 
the rest of Brazil is fertile. Along the rivers are some of the 
richest lands in the world. 





212 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


CLIMATE. 

12. Iii the northern parts and in the valley of the Amazon, the 
climate is hot and moist , but the heat is tempered by the great 
expanse of forests, and by the trade winds. Toward the south it is 
temperate and healthy,and throughout the whole country the climate 
may be described as highly agreeable and genial. In the valley of 
the Amazon the rainy season begins in December and lastsb months. 
The temperature varies but little here during the year, the aver¬ 
age being Si degrees. 

VEGETATION. 

13. Enjoying a favorable climate and a fertile soil, this country 
produces a great variety and abundance of plants. The forests 
yield valuable woods for dyeing and building. All kinds of tropi¬ 
cal produce, sugar, coffee, cotton, etc., are found in the warmer 
regions, while other districts abound in the cereal grains, and 
fruits of the temperate zones. Of coffee it furnishes three-fourths 
of all used in the world. 

The milk-tree, caoutchouc, or India rubber-tree, manioc, 
mate, logwood, mahogany, ipecac, sassafras, and numerous use¬ 
ful woods are among the products. Besides these there are many 
varieties of fruits, both tropical and those peculiar to the temper¬ 
ate zones. 

MINERALS. 

14. Gold is obtained both from the mines and from the wash¬ 
ings in various places. 

Iron abounds in nearly all the provinces, and copper and salt 
are common. 

Brazil supplies nearly all the diamonds of commerce. 

Other minerals are emeralds, rubies, topazes, silver, lead, ccaE 
mercury, and sulphur. 

M A NUFACTURES. 

* 5 * The manufactures are not extensive. However, recently 
there is quite a movement in this diiection and there are already 
many factories and foundries. The chief articles are hats, rum, 
cotton goods, soap, machinery, engines, farming implements* 
jewelry and leather. 

COMMERCE. 

16. Brazilian commerce is flourishing ; there are many lines of 
steam-ships enjoying a liberal subsidy from the state. 

The exports , coffee, hides, sugai, tobacco, cotton, diamonds,, 
dyewoods, etc., in 1SS0 aggregated over $102,000,000; the imports 
$^2,000,000, these wei e cottons,woolens, linens, jute, steam engines* 





A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


213 


\ 

rails, machinery, hardware, cutlery, etc. The trade with the 
United States is large. 

INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. 

17. The roads of Brazil are wretched, but there are twenty lines 
of railroad aggregating 1,900 miles, extended by public and pri¬ 
vate means. 

In 1874 a submarine cable was completed to Europe. 

Bridges are hardly known. 

But under the present wise administration there is great en¬ 
couragement toward internal improvements of all kinds. & 

ANIMALS. 

iS.. The wild animals comprise the jaguar, puma, and other cat 
species, the tapir, peccary, alligators, poisonous and monstrous 
serpents, troops of monkeys, parrots, macaws, toucans, curassous, 
humming birds, etc. The plains abound in wild cattle. 

About 2,oco species of fish are found in the Amazon river. 

INHABITANTS. 

19. A large portion of the country has never been fully explored, 
and is occupied bv savage tribes of independent Indians. 

The negroes who form a large part of the population were orig¬ 
inally imported from Africa and are being emancipated from 
slavery. In 1S71 a law was enacted that every child born of slave 
parents after that date, should be free. 

The whites number one-third of the whole population; there are 
besides many of the mixed races. In many places large German 
settlements, as wellas those of other nationalities, have been made. 

The Brazilians are cheerful, good-humored, and intelligent, 
and we are glad to say that their social condition is fast improv¬ 
ing. The whole population is 10, j08,000. 

OCCUPATION. 

20. Agriculture is the chief employment. The raising of cattle, 
horses, and mules, upon the great plains, is the chief object of the 
farmer there. Some ot the farms contain from 40,000 to 60,000 
head of cattle. 

Commerce and mining furnishes employment to many. Of late 
considerable attention is being paid to manufacturing. 

LANGUAGE. 

21. The civilized portion of the population generally speak the 
Portuguese language; but many Germans , Italiafis , etc. have 
settled in vaypus places, who speak their native tongues. 





214 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


GOVERNMENT. 


22. Brazil is a limited monarchy. Don Pedro II. is emperor. 

“The executive power is vested in the emperor, and his ministers* 

and secretaries of state. The empire is divided into twenty pro¬ 
vinces, comprising 642 municipalities, each having a council 
chosen directly by citizens possessed of an annual income of $112. 

The legislative power is vested m a senate of 58 member elected' 
for life, and a chamber of deputies, 122 members, chosen tor four- 
years. 

A property qualification is necessary to a right of suffrage. 

EDUCATION. 

23. Free public schools are supported by the state and in some 
of the provinces education is- compulsory. 

About 500 newspapers ai e published. However, there is still 
much ignorance among the people. 


RELIGION. 

24. The Roman Catholic religion is established bylaw, all other 
creeds are tolera*ed, but must be practiced in private. 

Dissenters enjoy all the civil rights, except an election to the 
general assembly. 

CHIEF TOWNS. 


25. Rio Janeiro and Bahia have already been described. 

Pernambuco or Recife (“reef’) is situated on the Atlantic coast.. 
The harbor is protected bv,a reef of rocks, and the port is defended’ 
by four forts. 

Maranham, on the north-eastern coast is well laid out, witlr 
paved streets. 1 he harbor is fine and the commerce considerable. 

Para, another seaport of Brazil, on the Para river, 70 miles- 
from the Atlantic. It contains a numberof puMic buildings. Its 
trade which is important is carried on with Great Britain and' 
the United States. 

The following is a list of the principal towns of Brazil together 
with their population: 


Rio Janeiro. 275,000 Maranham. 

Bahia.. .. 129,000 Obidos. 

Pernambuco. 117,000 Santarem 

B ara . 35,000 Diamantina 


32,000 

2,000* 

1.500* 

10,000 


HISTORY. 

26. Pinzofi, one of the companions of Columbus,, first saw the coast of Bra¬ 
zil, north of the Amazon, in 1499 :: but the chief discovery was made by the 











A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


215 


Portuguese, under Cabot, who, while on a voyage to the east Indies, accidentally 
came in sight of the southern coast, May 3, 1500. No gold was at first discov¬ 
ered here, and the most valuable Exports consisted of dyewood, from which 
the name of Brazil was given to the country. 

In 1690, mines of gold were discovered, and diamonds shortly after. 
These discoveries raised the country to the level of the richest Spanish pos¬ 
sessions in America, and made it the most important source of revenue to the 
crown of Portugal. When the French invaded Portugal in 1S07, the royal 
family escaped to Brazil, where they continued to dwell after the expulsion of 
the invaders. 

On the overthrow of Napoleon, Brazil was raised from the rank of colony, 
to that of a kingdom. 

The inhabitants of Portugal testified their discontent at this change, and 
compelled the king to return to Lisbon in 1821, leaving his son, Don Pedro, as 
regent of Brazil. The Brazilians were now resolved to throw off all connec¬ 
tion with the mother country. Accordingly, on the 12th of October, 1822, 
declared themselves independent, and conferred the crown on Don Pedro 
with the title of Emperor of Brazil. 

The king finding resistance unavailing formally resigned his claim to the 
government of Brazil in 1825. Under this government the country has gen¬ 
erally been tranquil and prosperous. 


EUROPE. 


MAP EXERCISES. 

Locate the following: 

Islands. —Nova Zembla, Loffoden Isles, Zealand, Funen, Rugen, 
Oeland. Gothland, Aland, Channel Isles, Balearic Isles, Tvica, 
Majorca, Minorca, Corsica, Sardinia. Lipari, Sicily, Ionian 
Isles, Corfu, Candia, Great Britain, Ireland. Shetland Isles, 
Orkney Isles, Hebrides Isles, Elba, Scio, Cyprus, Euboea, 
Cyclades. 

Capes. —Kanin, North, The Naz6, Ortcgal, Finisterre, St. Vin¬ 
cent, Passaro, Mata pan, Land’s End, Wrath, Clear, Creux, 
Nao, de Gata, Duncansby IId., Salamone, Corso, Spartivento. 
Gallo, Malia, Spada. 

Peninsulas. —Norway and Sweden or Scandinavian, Jutland, 
Iberia, Italy, Morea, Crimea, Kanin, Kola. 

Mountain Ranges. —Sra, Guadarama, Timan Hills, Bohemian, 
Forest, Schar Daugh, Rhadope, Kiolen, Dovrefield, Valdai 
Hills, Ural, Caucasus, Carpathian, Balkan, Pindus, Alps, 
Sudetic, Harlz, Jura, Apennine, Cevennes, Cote d’Or, Vosges, 






216 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


Pyrenees, Cantabrian, Sierra Morena, Sierra Nevada, Dinaric, 
Alps. 

Mountain Peaks. —Olympus, Parnassus, Polino, Blanc. Cenis, 
St. Gothard, Etna, Stromboli, Vesuvius, Rotondo, Gennar- 
gentu, Perdu, Maladetta, Sneehatten, Sulitelma, Sabija. Kil- 
horn, Gaustafield. Gran Sasso. 

Gulfs, Bays and Seas. —AVai'anger, Hardanger, Sogne Fjord, 
Policastro, Tcheskaya, White, Bothnia, Finland, Baltic, Riga’ 
Dantzic, North, Zuyder Sea, Biscay, Lyons, Genoa, Venice, 
Naples, Taranto, Adriatic, Lepanto, Salonica, Archipelago! 
Marmora, Black, Azof, Caspian, Mediterranean, The Wash, 
Murray, Dornoch, Irish. 

Straits and Channels. —Skager Rack, Cattegat, Gibraltar, 
Bonifacio, Messina. Otranto, Dardanelles, Bosporus, Dover,’ 
English, St. George’s, Bristol, North, The Sound, Kertch. 

Dales.— Wener, Wetter. Constance, Onega, Ladoga, Zurich, 
Maelar, Erne, Como, Garda, Peipus, Ilmen, Maggiore, Kutno’ 
Corib, Stor. 


Rivers. —Klar, Dahl, Tornea, Onega, Dwina, Mezene, Petchora, 
Ural, Volga, Kama, Don, Dnieper, Dniester, Danube, Pruth’ 
1 heiss, Neva, Drave, Save, Po. Tiber, Rhone, Ebro, GuaJal- 
quivir, Tagus, Marne, Meuse, Scheldt, Rhine, Weser, Elbe, 
Oder, Wartha, Vistula., Niemen, Thames, Shannon, Glomen’ 
Sereth, March, Min ho, Maas, Spree, Bug, Maritza, Vardaiy 
Isar, Drin, Aar, Guadalaviar, Guadiana, Dordogne. 

Cities and Towns. —Ghristiania, Bergen, Hammerfest, Stock¬ 
holm, Gottenburg, Copenhagen, Elsinore, Madrid, Valladolid 
Cordova, Gibraltar, Barcelona, Saragossa, Lisbon, Oporto St’ 
Petersburg, Moscow, Odessa, Sebastopol, The Ha<nie 
Amsterdam, Brussels, Antwerp, Ghent, Paris, Calais Havre’ 
Nantes, Marseilles, Lyon’s, Bordeaux. Strasburo- Ajaccio’ 
Bremen, Hamburg, Lubeck, Berlin, Konigsberg, Dantzic’ 
Breslau, Magdeburg, Cologne, Aix-la-Chaoelle, Hanover’ 
T rank fort-on-the-Main, Dresden, Stutgard, Munich, Berne’ 
Geneva, Vienna. Prague, Buda Pesth, Rome, Turin, Milan 
Genoa, Florenee, Pisa, San Marino, Naples, Venice, 
Caghan, Paiermo,. Constantinople, Adrianople, Bucharest, 
Sew he, Salonica, Athens, Corinth, Thebes, Navarino, 
Candia, Coifu, London, Birmingham, Sheffield, Leeds Man¬ 
chester Liverpool, Edinburgh,Glasgow, Dublin, Cork Belfast 
Lours, Orleans, Syracuse, Belgrade, Lemberg,Trieste, Cittinje’ 
Valencia, Malaga Toulon, Newcastle, Klausenberg, Brunn’, 
Leghorn, Niznei Novgorod. 

Minor DivisioNS.-Andora, Bulgaria, Slavonia, Dalmatia, Mon¬ 
tenegro, Serv,a, Bosnia, Roumania, Wailachia, Rumelia, Al- 
bama, Transylvania, Hungary, Bohemia, Moravia, San Mar- 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


217 


ino Republic, Poland, Pommerania, Holstein, Sleswick, Han¬ 
over, Bavaria, Saxony, Silesia, Wurtemburg, Baden, Alsace, 
Prussia. 

Relative Position.— In what direction is London from Rome? 
from Paris? Berlin? Lisbon? St. Petersburg? In what direction 
is Berlin from Rome? from Moscow? Astrachan? Constantin¬ 
ople? Liverpool? Vienna? The Hague? Copenhagen? Ir. 
what direction is the North Sea from the Baltic Sea? from the 
Marmora? the Gulf of Lyons? Gulf of Riga? Ba' of Biscay? 

Travels.— What countries would you cross in traveling bv land 
from Portugal to Greece? to Denmark? to Russia? to Sebasto¬ 
pol? to Norway? from Norway to Turkey? to Italy? to Bel¬ 
gium? Trace a water route from London to Copenhagen; 
to St. Petersburg; to Edinburg; to Dublin; to Lisbon; to 
Marseilles; to Rome; to Athens; to Trieste; to Constantinople; 
to Sebastopol. A water route from Bremen to Liverpool; to 
Stockholm; to Lyons; to Venice; to Calcutta; to Sidney; to 
to Yeddo; to New York; to Quebec. 

Miscellaneous. —What capitals of Europe have nearly the same 
latitude as Columbus. Ohio? What cities are on or near the 6o° 
north latitude? the =;2°? What countries are crossed by these 
same parallels? What countries are crossed by the prime 
meridian? io°east? 2o° east? Give the latitude of all the capitals 
of Europe. Give the longitude of the same. What is the 
difference of time between London and Paris? Berlin? St. 
Petersburg? Calcutta? Pekin? Washington? What time of 
dav is it at Berlin when it is 7 o'clock a. m. at New York? 
What time of day is it in Paris when it is 1 o’clock a. m. in San 
Francisco? What is the length of the longest day at St. Pet¬ 
ersburg? at Rome? at Paris? Where did the sun set to-day when 
it rose at London? Where, when it was noon at London? 


DESCRIPTION. 


general statement. 

1. Europe, the least but one of the six Grand Divisions of the 
globe, surpasses them nil in wealth, intelligence, and general 
civilization; 

LOCATION. 

2. (i) Europe is bounded on the north by the Arctic ocean, 
on the east by Asia, on the south by Asia and the Mediterranean 
sea, and on the west by the Atlantic. 

(2) It lies between the parallels 36° and 71 0 non ill, and io° 
west longitude and 65° east longitude. 




218 


A .MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


EXTENT. 


3- Its greatest length is 3,400 miles, and greatest breadth 2,400 
miles. Area 3,825,000 miles. 


Distance from Paris to London 

225 m. 

Dis. from 

Amsterdam to Lond. 240m 

H U 

Vienna “ 

600 “ 

u u 

Copenhagen “ 600 ‘‘ 

u u 

Rome “ 

800 “ 

u u 

St. Petersburg “ 1,140“ 

u u 

Madrid “ 

700 “ 

u u 

New York “ 3,500 “ 

u 

Athens “ i 

, 5 °0 “ 

u u 

Dublin “ 300 “ 

u u 

Constan’op. u i 

,700 “ 

u u 

Iceland “ 1,050 “ 

U u 

Berne “ 

650 “ 




Let the pupil find, by the scale of miles, the distance between 
the following places: 


Rome to Madrid. Rome to Moscow. 

“ “ p anf- “ “ North Cape. 

Berlin. “ Astrachan. 

GENERAL outline of the coast. 

4. The main body of land viewed on the map has nearly the 
form of a right-angled triangle. Europe is so much indented by 
large bodies ot water that few parts are more than 300 miles from 
the sea. T. he shoreline measures more than 20,000 miles, or one 
mile of coast to every 1S9 square miles of surface. 

Within the English Channel, at St. Malo on the coast of France, the tide 
rises to a height of 50 feet, next to Fundy the highest known. 

CAPES. 

5. The most northerly extremity is North Cape. 

Cape Skagen or Skan, the northern extremity of Jutland, o-i V es 
name to the Skager Rack. Matapan projects’from the southern 
part of Greece into the Mediterranean; it is the southermost point 
in Europe. Land’s End, Cape Clear, with Duncansby Head are 
the most noted capes of the British Isles. Other important capes 
on the continent are St, Vincent, Ortcgal, Finisterre , Startivento ,, 
Fhe Naze , etc. 

GULFS AND HAYS. 

n 6 /, the most important gulfs and bays of Europe are the 

yL * ?t>- 0t , a ’ ^ he northern projection ot the Baltic sea, the 
Bay of Biscay, the Gulf of Lyons, Bay of Naples, etc. The Gulf of 
Bothnia is 400 miles long with an average width of ico miles. 

SEAS. 

7. The Mediterranean is the largest inland sea, bein<r 2 ooo 
miles long, 200 to Sot. miles wide with an area of 1,000,000 square 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


21 » 


At the Strait ot Gibraltar, a strong central current brings the waters of 
the Atlantic into it, while two lateral currents pour them back into the sea. 
The evaporation of the Mediterranean exceeds the amount which the rivers, 
bring into it; hence it is kept full by a stream from the Atlantic, while its. 
waters are about three times as salt as those of the latter. 

The Adriatic , an arm of the Mediterranean lies between Italy 
on the west and Turkey and Austria on the east. The western 
shores are low and marshy while the eastern are high and rocky.. 
Navigation is safe during the summer, but during the winter dan¬ 
gerous on account of the south-easterly winds; it is 500 miles long 
and 100 wide, area 45,000 square miles. 


SEAS. 

i.’th 

b'tii 

AREA. 

REMARKS. 

Black. 

700 

380 

168,500 

Drainage area is 640,000 sq. mi. It. is about one- 
hall' as salt as the ocean. Receives y, of the 
running water ofEurope and is subject to great 
storms. 

Marmora Marble 

:6o 

:>0 

6,000 

It derived its name from a small island toward 
its western extremity celebrated for its mar¬ 
ble quarries. 

Azof . 

200 

80 

14,000 

Perhaps the most noted sea in the world in abumU 
ance of lioh North coast bold and craggy; 
East coast very low. 

Archipelego.... 

400 

200 

60,000 

It contains numerous islands some of which have 
valuable marble. 

North. 

7(H) 

420 

250.0o0 

Average depth 186 feet. 

Baltic. 

9(H) 

180 

8 

O 

§ 

rH 

It drains more than onc-hfth of Europe or 900,000 
square mile-. 

Irish. . 

150 

127. 

10,000 

The scene of an active trade. 

Zuyder. 

45 

35 

1,200 

its waters are now being pumped into the sea. 

White. 

880 

30 to 
i:.«p 

45,0*0 

Deep and navigable for large vessels. At the 
mouth of the I>wi nathere are large sand-hanks. 


CHANNELS, STRAITS, ETC. 


8. The Strait of Dover separates England from France, and 
connects the North Sea to the English Channel. (The pupil 
should be required to locate other straits, etc. in the same way.) 


STRAITS, ETC. 

I.ENOTH 

WIDTH. 

Dover . 


21 

Skager Rack. 

150 

90 

Categat. . .. 

10) 

40 

English . .. 

300 

20 to 155 

Gibraltar . 

15 

Bosporus . 

17 

*a t° 1 U 

Dardanelles. 

Enikalo, or Kertch . 

40 

20 

1 to 4 

8 to 10 

Bonifacio . 


i 

Otra nto. 

80 

60 

Messina . 

20 

2 to 11 


ISLANDS. 


(j. Among the islands are the groups of Nova Zeotbla and 
Spitzbcrgcn , in the Arctic Ocean, both claimed by Russia. 













































"220 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


They are cold, barren, and desolate, entirely uninhabited, except there is 
-a. small Russian hunting post on the latter. They are visited in summer for 
the purpose of taking whales, walruses, and seals, which abound along the 
-coast Subterranean labyrinths of great antiquity have been discovered in 
Nova Zembla. 


The other principal islands are noticed in the following table. 


ISLANDS. 

LENGTH. 

BREADTH. 

AREA. 

POPULATION. 

<Ireat Britain. 

(108 

300 

185 

300 

170 

120 

88,000 
33.000 
in non 

9Q 14.1 non 

Ireland. 

tSinily.. 

5,364,000 

9 non 

Sardinia. . 

■Corsica.. .. 

Candia or Crete.. . 

152 

110 

150 

66 

53 

5 to 35 

40 

33 

66 

9 1 

9,200 
3,360 
a ttnn 

575,000 

263,000 

200,000 

130,000 

80.OOO 

637,000 

55,000 

32.000 

Cyprus . 

Euboea. 

iZealarad. 

Gothland. 

Malta. 

. 1 

148 

115 

81 

17 

‘±,OUU 

3.680 

1.4C0 

2,800 

1,277 

133 


PENINSULAS. 


10. Europe is much indented by arms of the sea, which form 
numerous peninsulas. 

The Scandinavian peninsula , comprising Norway, Sweden, and 
Lapland, is the largest; the isthmus, between the Gulf of Bothnia 
.and the White Sea, is less than 200 miles across. 

The Peninsula of Jutland is much smaller. In the south, is 
the Spanish or Iberian peninsula, (consisting of Spain and Port¬ 
ugal) with an isthmus 220 miles across. 

Italy , the JMorca joined to the continent by the narrow isthmus 
•ot Corinth, 20 miles long and 4 to 8 mile wides. and the Crimea 
extending into the Black Sea, are the most remarkable peninsulas; 
the latter is joined to Russia by the isthmus of Perekop 20 miles 
long and 4 wide. 

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SURFACE. 

u Eastern Europe from the Arctic Ocean to the Caspian and 
Black Seas is a low plain, the Valdai Hills, the highest part, beino- 
■not more than I,too feet above sea-level The northern part o'? 
‘Germany along the Baltic is low and narshy, nearly ii million 
acres being unfit for cultivation. The •• tern part of Austria is 
, a * as as Holland; much of the sura e of the latter is below 
the sea-level and dykes are built to keei lie waters of the sea out. 

During the year 1812 the dykes gave w seventy-two villages were 
submerged, 100,000 people drowned, and the a of the Zuyder Sea much 
increased. 























A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


22 ¥ 


The rest of Europe is in general high and hilly or mountainous. 
The central part of Spain consists of an elevated plateau on an 
average 2.300 feet high. The plateau of Auvergne is in southern; 
France. 

MOUNTAIN RANGES. 

12. Four great systems of mountains spread their numerous-' 
branches over this continent. 

The Pyrenees separate France and Spain, and extend in several 
parallel chains through the peninsula. 

The Alps are the principal trunk of the second great European 
system of mountains, whose branches stretch into France, Ger¬ 
many, Italy. Hungary, Turkey, and Greece. The losges r the 
Jura, and the Cevennes in France are its western spurs. 'The 
highest mountains are in Switzerland. 

A third mountainous system is the Carpathian, which nearly' 
surrounds Hungary, and extends along the frontiers of Moldavia, 
sending off several low ranges into Germany, 

The fourth system of mountains is the Scandinavian which 
traverses the peninsula of Norway and Sweden, and nowhere 
exceeds an elevation of 8,500 feet. The lollowing are the princi¬ 
pal elevations: 


15,700 feet. 

Balkan. 

.10,000 feet. 

11.500 “ 

Pindus. 


9,500 “ 

Carpathian. 

.10,000 “■ 

5 ’ 5 °° “ 

Cantahirn. 

.... 10,000 


O’ 


MOUNTAIN PEAKS. 

The following are the principal peaks with their height: 


Elburus. 


the highest of the Caucasus Mountains.- 

Mont Blanc. 

. 1^,668, 

.. “ Alps 

U 

Mulahacen. 

. 11,670, 

“ “ “ “ Sierra Nevada 

k t- 

Maledetta. 

. 11,468, 

‘ “ “ “ Pyrenees 


Carno. 

. 10,iso, 

“ “ “ Apennines 

u 

Scardus. 

.... 10,000, 

“ “ “ “ Balkan 


Ruska Poyana. 

. 9 ’ 9 IO > 

4 * *• “ Carpathian 


Skagostolstind. 


<. ii “ Kiolen 


Pernassus. 


8,000, Greece. 


Sneehatten... . 


7.^60, Norway. 




io,76S s (Sicilv) Active Volcano- 



. 8,480, (Italy) “ 




.1 r ,:oo. 



Stromboli, 2,500 feet high is a volcano constantly in a state of 
eruption, its fires can be seen at a great distance at sea and is, for, 
tins reason, called the ‘‘Lighthouse of the Mediterranean.’! 

























222 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


NATURAL CURIOSITIES. 

14. There are numerous caverns , 'waterfalls , mineral springs, 
glaciers, and other objects of interest in different parts of Europe’ 

The scenery of Switzerland is among the finest in the world. 

The lakes and mountain sceneries of northern Italy are particu¬ 
larly fascinating. 

The Rhine abounds in objects and places of romantic beauty, 
he mountains and glens of Spain are much admired for their 
Wildness and sublimity. 

The numerous cataracts, lakes, rugged mountains of the Scan- 
dinavian Peninsula make it an interesting country to tourists. 

Ki thorn peak situated in the northern part of Norway, has a large per¬ 
foration, at about three-fourths of its height, through which the sun & shines 
twice each day during the summer, once at noon and then again at midnight; 
the effect is extraordinary. 

LAKES. 


There a xa two great lake regions in Europe; one embracing 
■the lakes ot Switzerland and Italy and the other the thousands of 
lakes ot north-western Russia and Sweden. The lakes of the first 

legion are noted tor their beauty, being 'set like oems amidst the 
mountains. 

. b' e °f Nor ™«y are noted as being the most transparent 

in the world. It is said that pebbles may be seen at a depth of 130 ft. 

The following is a list of the principal lakes: 


LAKES. LENGTH, 


■Como.. 


Maggiore 
Gorda.. 
Wener . 
Wetter. 
Maelar. 
Onega.. 
Ladoga. 
Zurich.. 


'Constance. 

Geneva.... 

Neufchatel 
Cucerne... 
Teipus. 


35 

40 

35 

01 

SO 

70 

140 

23 

40 

45 


24 

24 

SO 


BREADTH 


AREA 


2 

2 to 10 
15 to 50 
10 

2 to 25 
30 to 45 

>2 to 

9 

1 to vy 
4 

)>i to 2 
32 


10 


2.120 


3,400 
6,190 


200 

82 

96 


REMARKS . 


Subject to violent storms. Shores lined with 
beautiful villas. 

300 feet deep; several beautiful villages 
951 feet deep, and abounds in flsh. 

Receives 30 rivers. 

Useful in navigation. 

Contains 1.300 islands. 

Its waters are beautifully clear. 

Receives 60 rivers. 

Celebrated for its picturesque beauty 

suddeu risia Ss from an unknown 

984 feet deep and is subject to sudden rising 

fiom 1 to 4 feet lasting 25 minutes. 0 
SSS(b UtifUl than the other lakes of 


1,380 feet above sea level and 300 feet dcen 
Scenery is very picturesque. Fisheries su 
ot. 1 etersburg in winter. 


supply 


RIVERS. 


16. The rivers of Europe are important. The rivers of western 





































A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 223 

The I olga is the largest river, but its navigation is interi upted 
by sand-beaches. It empties into the Caspian Sea through sev¬ 
enty mouths and changes its channel frequently. 

The Danube rises in the Black Forest mountains of Germany, 
flows in a general direction south-east and empties into the Biack 
Sea by five principal mouths. It receives ioo navigable tributaries 
and is navigable to Ulm, Bavaria. 

J'lie Po River of northern Italy is a slusrsfish stream; in its lower 
course its waters are kept in bv levees and the channel lias become 
so elevated that the surface of the river is as high as the tops of 
the houses. 

The Rhine contains the noted Falls Schaffhauscn , ioo feet high; 
it contains other lesser falls and is remarkable for the number of old 
castles upon its banks built during the Feudal Ages. 

There is a beautiful cataract of 112 feet high called Trolliatta on 
the Gotha in south Sweden. 


The following are the principal rivers of Europe: 


RIVERS. 

LENGTH. 

AREA Of BASIN 

MILES OK NAVIGATION, ETC. 

Volga. 

2,500 

400,000 

It has 70 mouths ami the navigation is obstruct 
ed by sand-bars. 

Danube. 

2,000 

270,000 

To Ulm of Bavaria. 1.000 s<j. mi. of delta 

1*0. 

400 

55,000 

280, lower course protected by dikes 

Rhone. 

650 

46,000 

-loo. Navigation difficult 

Rhine. 

000 

so, 000 

I'o the falls of Schaflhausen. 

Seine. 

500 

35,000 

350. Banks highly picturesque 

Thames. 

215 

6,100 

i'o London (60 mi.) for large ships. 

Kibe. 

740 

60,000 

'i'o Prague, navigation difficult 

Oriel-. 

550 

37,000 

l'n Breslau’for barges of 50 ton-. 

Vistula. 

690 

75,000 

>50 to Cracow. 

Dwiua.. 

400 

140,000 

400 Its whole length. 

Duua. 

000 

65,000 

Navigable nearly throughout. 

Don. 

1,325 

170,000 

>00, to Zadohsk, difficult. 

Dnieper 

1,230 

242,000 

I’o Smolensk lor Hat bottomed boats. 

Ebro 

4 NO 

33,000 

53,000 

Navigation difficult because of rapidity & rock? 

Loire. .. 

045 

150, to Roanne, for half the year. 

Tagus . 

545 

44),000 

To Aorantes, about 100 miles; an impetuou 
stream. 

Tiber. 

210 

6,000 

:0to90; a sluggish and muddy stream. 

Shannon. 

224 

8,000 

Navigable nearly throughout. 

l’etchora. 

.400 

65.000 

Its estuary contains numerous islands. 


soil. 

17. The soil of Europe is* various, but in general is not fertile. 
Industrious and skillful cultivation, however, has made it the most 
productive portion of the globe. Many ot the numerous river 
valleys are highly productive. The extreme northern parts are 
sterile because of the excessive cold. The south-eastern part ot 
Russia is almost a desert. 


CLIMATF. 

iS. In general, the climate of southern Europe may be described 
as mild, and that of the North severe, with long and cold winters, 
and hot, but short summers. 



































224 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


The climate of Western Europe is about io degrees warmer 
than that of America in the same latitude, caused by the prevailing- 
westerly winds from the Gulf Stream, but for the same reason it 
is liable to sudden and violent changes. 

That of the Eastern part of the continent is lendered much 
colder in corresponding latitudes, bv its exposure to the icy winds 
of Northern and Central Asia. The Siroccos from the “Sahara, 
often do much damage by their scorching heat, but in general are- 
tempered by their great exposure to the^sea. The mountains of 
Switzerland, Spam, and Hungary also modify the character of the- 
climate, by cool breezes over the extensive districts they cover. 


ANIMALS. 


I 9 - Many of the original animals of Europe have been extermi¬ 
nated. 1 he lion, tiger, and ostrich, which, doubtless once 
roamed in the forests, have disappeared. Monkeys are only found 
on the rocky heights of Gibraltar. The wild bull is still met with 
in the thick woods «f Russia. The mcuffion is found in Greece 
baidima. and Corsica;, the ibex in Candia and the Alps* the 
chamois, tne hunting of which is followed with ardor, is found in 
small flocks m the mountains of Central Europe; the elk resem¬ 
bling our moose inhabits the noi th. Reindeer are numerous and 
are domesticated among the Laplanders. 


The stag, fallow-deer, roe-buck, wild-boar, lynx, wild-cat, weasel, pole¬ 
cat, marten, sable, genet, badger, glutton, brown and black bear, fox, wolf 
jackal, hare, rabbit, squirrel, marmot, beaver, hedgehog, otter, and porcupine" 
are found in different places. 


The birds are numerous and of great variety. Eao-les vul- 

wnnL J r‘p WkS ’ “'ll “T* ' ire f ° und chiefl y in mountainous and 
woody legions. Tne lamergeyer is a large species of vulture fre¬ 
quenting the Alps. The falcon, trained to hunt game, nearly 
resembles our big-footed hawk. The singing birds are numerous 7 

abundant 6 ' 11 - 15 ^ '‘' ghtmgale; grouse, partridges, and quails are 


VEGETABLE PRODUCTIONS. 

20. Europe extending from the Arctic zone to the verge of the 
tropic oresents a great variety of vegetable products. Far to the 
/ i.t re vegetation consists only bt mosses, with a few willows 
and other trees which are reduced to shrubs. In the middle of 
Europe, there are immense forests. Here all the cerealgreinf 
flourish, and here, as well as in southern Europe are the raosUum- 
erous and prolific vineyards in the world. 

E. S P aln 'Italy, and \ Greece, the orange, lemon, fig and olive 
leach their perfection. The varieties of the oak, asli, chestnut 

" mM " s ,l ”” in ~- v - ~ 



A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


225 


Russia produces large quantities of wheat, rye, barley, oats, 
hemp, flax, Indian com, tobacco, and honey. 

Norway and Sweden , wheat, oats, barley, beans, peas, potatoes. 

Denmark , the usual grains, and horses. 

Holland , cereals, fruits, bulbs and flower roots, cattle. 

Southern Europe , oranges, lemons, dates, cotton, grapes, al¬ 
monds, figs. 

Central Europe , grapes, fruits, cereals, sugar-beets, etc. 

MINERALS. 

21. Europe is less rich in the prescious minerals than the other 
quarters of the globe; but it produces great quantities of coal, iron, 
lead, tin, copper, salt. Gold, silver, platinum, and diamonds, are 
found in the Ural mountains; silver in Hungary; quicksilver in 
Spain; iron and copper in the Scandinavian peninsula, Germanv, 
Belgium, Great Britain, etc. 

Austria is said to contain every known mineral save platinum. 

Italy and Greece are richest in marble. 

Coal is mined chiefly in England, Belgium, and Germany. 

Rock-salt in Austria. 

Read is found in nearly all the large mountain ranges. 

Din is found only in England and in the Hartz mountains. 


MANUFACTURES. 

22. The European nations take the lead in manufacturing. The 
excellent shipping advantages, the great amount of water power 
furnished by the numerous rivers, the cheapness of labor, the 
facilities for obtaining raw material, have given to the European 
nations advantages and incentives to manufacturing enjoyed bv no 
other nations on the globe. In western Europe, in the more 
densely populated sections, every stream is lined with factories 
upon its banks. 

The different nations of Europe excel in the manufacture of 
different articles. 

The English excel in the manufacture of hardware, heavy 
machinery, rail-road iron, cutlery, cotton goods. 

The Swedes in iron. 

The French in perfumery, silks, wines, and articles of fashion. 

The Germans in heavy iron ware, munitions of war, steel. 

The Dutch , in butter, cheese, and flower culture. 

The Russians , in sail-cloth, soap, candles, glass, paper, 
ropes, etc. 


226 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 




The Italians , in guaze, porcelain, parchment, artificial flowers, 
and musical instruments. 

On account of a want of water power, the people of Holland 
have taken advantage of the prevalence of high winds, and the 
whole country is made to bristle with wind-mills. 

COMMERCE. 

23. The total annual value of the commerce of Europe is 
$4,604,oco,oco imports; and $3,697,000,000 exports, distributed as 
follows: 


COUNTRIES. 


Great Britain, 

France,. 

Germany, 

Russia, .*. 

A ustria,. 

Belgium,. 

Italy, . 

Spain. . . 

Holland.. 

Switzerland,.. 

Turkey,. 

Sweden,. 

Norway,..... 
Portugal,... 

Denmark.. 

Greece,... 


IMPORTS. 


EXPORTS. 


EXPORTS TO 
THE IT. S. 


IMPORTS 
FROM U. S. 


1,8<)5,< i( 10,000 1,220.000.000 104.((00.000 


680,000,000 
454,000,000 
414,000,000 
294,000,000 
246,000,000 
252.000,000 
S9.000.000 
82.000.000 
82.000.000 
• r 9.000,000 
45,000,000 

27,000.01 )0 
27.000,000 
22,000.000 
17,000,000 


726,000,000 
425,000,000 
811,000.000 
216,000,000 
208,000.01 0 
249,000.000 
68,000,000 
69,000.000 
7s, 0!(0,000| 
26,000,0901 
43.000,000j; 

21'000,0001 i 
21,000,000 
1 l.OOO.OOO! 
10.000.0(H)! 


52,100.000 
44,000,000 
1,250,000 
500,0(0 
5,750.000 
8.500,000! 
4,500,00m 
2,500,000 

750,000 

2,000,000 

500.000 

590,000; 

204.000' 


3SJ,o00.000 

51.oOO.OUO 

67,000,000 

10,383,000 

1,750,0(0 

21.OCO,00() 

8,500.000 

11,500,000 

11,400,01.0 


2,500,000 

2,333,000 

1,750,004 
2.500,0 )0 
333,00.) 


I he exports are chiefly manufactured*articles, while the 
are mainly raw material, and provisions. 


imports 


X A T u R A L A I) V A X 1' AG ES. 

24. (the pupil should now be required to give the natural advantages for 
agriculture, manufactures, and commerce). 


I XTERX AI, IMl*ROVE51 ENTS. 


'J * 

O* 


_ Canals are numerous in Great Britain, France and Holland 
1 here are also some in other countries. Railroads and the man ■- 
nolle telegraph now connect all important places. 


A. most remarkable feature of Europe is the high state of improvement 
ol the country, the excellence of its roads, the numerous villages and cities, 
the number and elegance ot its public buildings, the fine and durable bridges! 

In 188 . 2 ; there were 106,000 miles of railroad, and 24^.000 miles of tele¬ 
graph line. 


INHABIT ANTS. 


26. The inhabitants belong chiefly to the Aryan branch of the 
Ilh man race. I here are about live millions of Jews scat- 







































A MANUAL OF GEOGKAPIlY. 


2'27 


teied throughout Europe, and about sixteen millions Mongolians', 
the latter are found in Turkey, Hungary, and Lapland The 


Aryans are divided as follows: 


Into Geimanic, including the Germans, Danes, Norwegians, Swedes, 
English, Swiss, and Dutch; the Romanic, including the French, Spanish, 
Portuguese, Italians and Greeks ; Slavonic, including the Russians and the 
I oles, Ce.tic, including the Irish, Welsh, and Highland Scotch. 


POPULATION. 


3 7- The following table will show the number of inhabitants 
according to the latest authorities: 



COI NTKl Ks 

NO. OK IN- 

II A BIT ANTS 

POP. 

sq. M. 

ST’I) ’(4 

A K >1V. 

W A K 
SHIPS. 

NAVY NATIONAL 
(i CNS. DEBTS. 

AREA. 

Circat Britain,. 

France,. 

Germany,. 

Austria,. 

35,038.000 
87,147,000 
45,509,0,40 
88,1)00,001 

296 

182 

218 

158 

288,f0( 
502,004 
427,274 
292,0t 0 

570 

258 

80 

51 

3,000 3,925,100,000 121,008 

3,702.000,000 204,092 

000 825,000.(iOO 2)8,431 

4 78 1.780.000,110 241,035 

♦Spain,.. 

Portugal. 

] 0.348.000 
4,018,000 
28,210.000 
2, NOs. 000 
5,536,00c 
4,087,000 
2,058,000 
1.879,000 

.58 

S4 

IT. 

240 

114 

4*7 

818 

180 

15 

839.0 J .1 

00,000 

!«i m n 

389 
12l 
jj 

380 1,8(5,000,000 1,933,030 

5251,300,000,100 193,229 

17s 35-0,000,000 34,000 

478 1,255,000,000 114,415 

15,981 

cm 1 mm 11 ■)-.! 

Italy,.. 

787,505 
120,000 
40,001- 
08,525 
85.050 
12,o< 0 

73 

4 

.Switzerland,. 

Belgium, . 

1 loflaml,. 

124 

35 

122 

137 

108 
» • 

500 4u6!0Oi\O(J» 
291 70,000,001 

min mu 

J 1 «) 

12,731 

14.789 

1 •>•) vlUI 

Denmark.. 

Norwav,. 

Sweden,. 

Turkey,. 

4.579.1 00 
8,8»7,0i 0 
1,080,000 
5,870.000 

a 

188,088 
150,COO 

378, 55,000]ll00 1740979 

11,075.(X »0,0« M-, 105,912 

Romania, 

100 

1 4)oUU 

• > I 


m,w;> 

49,303 

1 V TUT 

Servia. 

1,082,000 

80 




Montenegro.... 

Andora, . 

8CO'()00 
18,000 
8,000 
7,000 
205,0O1) 
0,0J0 

.82 

04 




3,042 

191 

24 

0 

999 

08 

San Marino. 





Monaco,.. 

Liixemberg. . 

1,107 

205 

182 




Lichtenstein,. 




Total,. 

818,484,000 

, v 5 



,700,992 




OCCUPATION. 


2S. Agriculture, manufactures, commerce, mining, and fisheries 
are carried on with the greatest activity, skill, and success. No¬ 
where in the world is agriculture carried on with so much zeal 
and perfection as in Western Europe; except in England and 
Kelgium the majority are engaged in it. To an American it is sur¬ 
prising to see the number of women employed in the fields. 
Farms, in general, are small and are cultivated with all the skill of 
gardening. 


LANGUAGE. 


29. A great variety of languages are spoken in England. The 












































22S 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


following table will exhibit the language, government, and religion 
of the principal countries : 


States of 
first 
rank. 


States of 
second 
rank. 


Of third 
rank. 


States of 
of fourth- 
rank. 


CLASSES. 

30. In almost every European state we find the citizens divided 
into four distinct classes. 

dhe first is that of the nobility, which exists in most states, with 
the exception of Norway, Switzerland, France and the Turkish 
Em pire. 

The clergy form the second class of the community. 

The third class is that of the citizens, or inhabitants of towns, 
who, in most countries, enjoy peculiar rights and privileges. 

The fourth and lowest class includes the peasants, and forms, 
th e mass of the population in every country. 


LANGUAGE. 


Great Britain,.... 

France,. 

Germany. 


Austria,. 


Russia,. 

Spain,.... 

Portugal,. 

Turkey,.. 

Swe. & Norway, 

Belgium,. 

Holland,. 

Denmark, . 

Switzerland,.... 

Greece,. 

Romania,. 

An dor a,.. 

Liehteinstein,... 

San Marino,. 

Monaco,. 


English, 

French, 

German, 

i20 different lan¬ 
guages, princi- 
(pally German, 
Russian, 

Spanish, 

Portuguese, 

Turkish, 

Nor. and Swedish, 
) Ger. and French 
/Flemish, 

Dutch, 

Danish, 

Ger. and French, 
Greek, 

Latin dialect, 
Catalan, 

German, 

Italian, 

Italian, 


government. 


RELIGION. 


PER CENT. OF 
ILLITERACY. 


Kingdom, lim¬ 
ited monarchy 
Republic, 
Empire, 

Empire, 

Despotism, 

Kingdom, 

Kingdom, 

Despotism, 

Kingdom, 

Kingdom, 

Kingdom, 

Kingdom, 

Republic, 

Kingdom. 

Principality, 

Republic, 

Principality, 

Republic, 

Principality, 


Protestant, 

Catholic, 

Protestant, 

Catholic, 

Greek. 

Catholic, 

Catholic, 

Moliam’edon 

Lutheran, 

Catholic, 

Pres. * Catli 

Lutheran, 

Luth. & Cath 

Greek, 

Greek, 

Catholic, 

Catholic. 

Catholic, 

Catholic, 


33' 
33 
VI 

4 !) 

91 

SO 

Very large 
Very large 
Ne’fly free 

30 

18 


1 


EDUCATION. 


3 1 - 


Education is becoming fai more general than formerly, but 
there is still a large per cent, of illiteracy in many countries as 
will be observed by refering to the preceding table. Germany 
has perhaps the best school system of any countrv on the globe. 
Every child is compelled by law to attend school." 

In the territory acquired in the late war with Austria there were a num¬ 
ber of states in which the illiteracy was great, so that in giving the per cent, 
of illiteracy ot Germany, she appears at a disadvantage. 

RELIGION. 


3 2 - All cieeds aie tolerated in all the countries of Europe, and 
the prevailing religion of each country has been given in the’pre- 












































A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


229 


ceding table. There are 154,479,500 Roman Catholics; 78,875,000 
Protestants; 71.405,000 Greek Christians; 8,675,000 Mohamme- 
dons 55,000,000 Jews. 

CHIEF CITIES. 


33 * The cities of Europe constitute a remarkable feature of the 
country, on account of their great population, and the superb 
buildings they contain, with their various institutions for the en¬ 
couragement of art, literature and science. 

The following is a list of the principal cities with their population: 

London, 3,445,000, the largest city in the world and the first in 

commercial importance. 

Liverpool, 516,000, the greatest cotton emporium. Ship-build- 

is carried on to a great extent. 

o 


FRANCE. 

Paris.1 

Lvons.. 

Marseilles.. .... 

Bordeaux. 

Lisle. 

Toulouse. 

Nantes. 

Rouen. 

SPAIN. 

Madrid. 

Barcelona. 

Valencia. 

Seville. . 

PORTUGAL 

Lisbon. 

Oporto. 

ITALY. 

Rome. 

Naples. 

Milan. 

Palermo. 

Turin. 

Florence. 

Genoa. 

Venice. 

Bologna. 

Messina. 


SWITZERLAND. DENMARK. 

,989,000 Geneva. 68,000 Copenhagen.198,000 

,343,000 Basle. 45,000 Norway. 


Berne. 36.000 Christiania.100,000 

Zurich. 21,000 Bergen.34,000 

GERMANY. SWEDEN. 

Berlin .967,000 Stockholm.176.000 

11 am burg.265,000 Gottenberg. 69,000 


RUSSIA. 

St. Petersburg. . . .66S.000 

Moscow.602.000 

Warsaw.302,000 


Leghorn... 


319.000 
.215,000 
163.000 
. 132,000 
. 119,000 

.105,000 Breslau .239,000 

Dresden .197,000 

367,000 Munich.199,000 

216,000 Cologne .135,000 

103,000 Koningsburg .... 123,000 Odessa.185,000 

119,000 Leipsic .i27,ooo(Riga.99.000 

Hanover.107,000 Astrakhan . 48,000 

253,000 Stutgart.107,000 Austria. 

89.000 Frankfort-on-the- Vienna.1,002.000 

Main.1 03.000 Buda-Pesth.309.000 

229,000 Bremen.102,000 Prague.190,000 

449,000 Dantzic . 98,000 Trieste.109,000 

261,000 BELGIUM. TURKEY. 

22S,ooo Brussells.183,000 Constantinople.. . 700,000 

208,000 Antwerp.149,000 Adrianople.150,000 

167,000 Ghent.128,000 roumania. 

130,000 Liege.118,000 Bucharest.222.000 

129,000 HOLLAND. GREECE. 

116,000 Amsterdam.,290,000 Athens. 45,000 

112,000 Rotterdam.123,000 Corinth. 6,000 

97,000 The 11 ague.104,000 


ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

34. It will be observed that geography has been a progressive 
science. In the early ages of the world, mankind bad no just 
notions either of its extent or form. Homer, who flourished about 
1,000 years B. C., may be supposed to have had as enlightened 
ideas of geography as were then entertained. lie supposed the 
•earth to he a vast plain, surrounded by a shoreless ocean; beneath 











































































230 


A MANUAL OF GEOGHAPin'- 


he placed the Elysium,jor Paradise , and Tartarus, or hell. Above 
was the arch of heaven, supposed to rest on the mountains as pil¬ 
lars. The sun, moon and stars were supposed to rise from the sen 
in the morning:, and to set in it at night. It was believed that 
those who lived in the remote west could hear the hissing noise of 
the fiery orb of day as he plunged into the ocean. 

Physical geography remains the same from age to age; or, if 
there is a change, it is unimportant in a general view. The seas, 
the mountains, the rivers, the coasts of those portions of the earth 
embraced in the map, therefore, present the same prominent fea¬ 
tures at the present day, as those which marked them in the time 
of Caesar, of David, and of Moses. Particular portions o 1 the earth, 
also, in many cases, bear the same names now as in ancient times, 
notwithstanding the fluctuations of political boundaries, and the 
mutations and revolutions of human societv. The following table 
will be found useful for reference: 

ANCIENT DIVISIONS OF EUROPE. 

ANC’KT NAMES. MOD’RN NAMES. ANC’XT NAMES. MOD’rN NAMES. 


Grecia. 


Germania. . 

.German v. 

Italia. 


Helvetia. . . 

.Switzerland. 

Hispania. 

. . .Spain and Portugal. 

Sarmatia. . . 

Poland, part Switzerland. 

Gaul. 


Sc’nd’nav'a 

. N'rw’ySwed'nDenm’rk. 

Britain. 


Flanders . . . 


Hibe-nia.. . . 


Botavia. . 

.Holland, 

Caledonia.... 


Sicilv. 



HISTORY. 

ANCIENT GREECE'. 

35. The history of Europe begins with the settlement of Greece. It is said 
that, in the year 1856 before Christ, Iivachtts , a Phoenician adventurer, arrived 
with a small band of his countrymen, and made a permanent settlement upon 
this peninsula. At that time, Assyria and Egypt had risen to a considerable 
degree of civilization, while nearly all other nations were in a state of bar¬ 
barism. Europe was covered with an unbroken forest, inhabited only bj r wild 
beasts, except a small band of savages, called Pelasgians,\ve re scattered here 
and there over the country. In 1556 B. C., a colony led by an Egyptian, named 
Cecrops , established themselves in Attica, and here, in due time rose the re¬ 
nowned city of Athens. Corinth was founded in 1520. Sparta, or Lacedae- 
man, the celebrated capital of Laconia, was founded by Lelex , also in 1520. 

Cadmus , a Phoenician, founded the city of Thebes, in Boeotia. bringing 
with him alphabetical writing and other useful arts, which are diffused over 
Greece. The- history of these early period^ which we derive from, the Greek. 
















A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 




writings, is obscured by table: actual events being strangely\blended with 
fabulous marvels, relating to gods and heroes. It is not till about 1,000 B.- ( '.. 
that history becomes authentic and reliable. 

The Greeks spread themselves over the peninsula and adjacent Islands, 
and finally planted colonies in Asia Minor. This active and ingenious people 
steadily advanced in prosperity, and about five centuries before tbe-Christian 
era they had become the most powerful, learned, and refined nation of the 
earth. They were divided into numerous states, and frequently engaged in 
violent and desolating wars with each other. In the year 4S0 B. C., they 
combined in defense against Xerxes, king of Persia, who invaded their terri¬ 
tory with an army, consisting of from two to three millions of men. This 
defense was successful, and the invader was driven back with humiliation, hi< 
army being dispersed and his power broken. In the year 331 B. C., Alexander 
the Great, king of Macedon, including Greece, invaded Persia, and, in the 
space of a few vears, made himself master of the entire Persian empire. Prom 
this time, Greece gradually declined; and in the year 146 B. (’., it was con¬ 
quered bv the Romans, aud reduced to a Roman province. Its arts, learn¬ 
ing, and philosophy continued, however, for many centuries, to exercise a 
civilizing influence; and. even at the present dav, the relics of its eminent 
writers, which have survived, impart instruction to the classical scholar. 

ANCIENT ROME. 

Rome is said to have been founded in the year753 B. C., by Romulus 
belonging to a Greek colony settled in that quarter. lie collected together, 
by his policy, a considerable number of brave and daring men. By degrees 
a great city rose on the banks of the little river Tiber, where the present city 
of Rome stands. Various tribes, some of them more civilized than the Ro¬ 
mans, at this time inhabited Italy; but these were all gradually subdued and 
brought under Roman sway. Several able sovereigns sue ceeckd Romulus; 
but in the year 509 B. (’., in consequence of the misconduct of the 
king, named Tarquin ihc proud, an insurrection arose, headed by Bru¬ 
tus, which resulted in changing the government to a Republic. From this 
time, the power of Rome gradually increased, until she became mistress of 
nearly the whoie civilized world. About the year 45 B. C., the Roman re¬ 
public was overturned by Julius Ca*sar. Several ambitious men now struggled 
for the supreme power, till the year 30 B. C.; when Augustus Caesar gained 
the ascendency and was declared emperor. At this period, the empire em¬ 
braced nearly the whole of Europe, the northern and north-eastern portions 
of Africa, and all western Asia. It continued, under various emperorsyfor 
several hundred years. 

In the vear 39?; A. I)., the empire was divided into the Eastern and Jf r cs- 
tern. The capital of the former was at Constantinople. Its territories extended 
over Greece, Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, etc. This power is often called in 
history the Greek Empire , and also the Byzantine Empire . The Wester.* 


232' 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


Empire had Rome for its capital, and comprised the larger portion of Europe; 
but in the vear 476 A. D., if was finally overwhelmed by numerous warlike 
tribes from the North. 

BARBARIANS. 

The people who thus destroyed the Roman Empire consisted of various 
nations of Barbarians from Norway, Sweden, Denmark, and different parts ' 
of Germany. For two thousand years prior to this event, numerous tribes 
from central portions of Asia had continued to emigrate to northern Europe; 
some passing north of the Caspian, and others between the Caspian and Black 
seas. Among these was a very numerous tribe called the Celts, who settled 
in France, then called Gaul. Spreading in various directions, some passed 
into Spain, some into northern Italy, and some into England, Ireland, and 
Wales. Portions of these made formidable attacks upon their southern 
neighbors, at an early date. 

In the year 366 B. C., 70.000 of tlmm marched against Rome, and got 
possession of the city, excepting the Capitol. The cackling of the geese in the 
Temple of Juno gave warning to the sentinels, as the Gauls, at night, were 
about to surprise this fortress. The Romans only saved their city from de¬ 
struction by a heavy tribute of gold. In the year 278 B. C., an immense force, 
cinder Brennus , ravaged Northern Greece; but they were dispersed and driven 
back. Julius Caesar marched into Gaul, and after sacrificing a million of 
men, reduced the country to a Roman province. In Germany the tribes were 
numerous, and of a warlike disposition. These bore the general name of Teu- 
tones, including various minor divisions. 

Besides these were the Goths; who had settled in Sweden and the vicin¬ 
ity; the Vandals , a kindred tribe in the same quarter; the Ostrogoths, of Aus 
tria; the Snevi , near the Baltic, and many others. These people increased in 
numbers and power, and, as the Roman empire became weakened, they grew 
troublesome and dangerous. 

About the year 410 A. D , Alaric, king of the Visigoths, a people dwelling 
on the Danube, thrice marched against Rome, and in two instances made him¬ 
self master of it. In’the year 451, Attila, king of the Huns, crossed the Alps, 
and, advancing toward Rome, threatened that city with destruction. This was 
only prevented bv large bribes given to the barbarian chief by the Pope. 

The Roman empire had been built up by making war, without scruple or 
mercy, on all other nations. The day of retribution was now at hand. The 
Romans were enfeebled by luxury, and degraded by every species of vice and 
corruption. The northern nations were poor, but vigorous, daring and war¬ 
like. Alaric and Attila had taught them the way to Rome. The rich cities 
and smiling valjeys of Italy seemed to invite them to exchange their cold and 
sterile homes, with their poverty, for the boundless riches and happy climate 
of the south. They were not long yielding to this temptation. Like a mighty 
river breaking its boundaries, they came over the Alps in a living and im¬ 
petuous torrent, taking possession not only of Italy, Spain, and part of Greece, 
butthey swept across the Mediterranean, and settled down upon the culti¬ 
vated parts of Northern Africa. 



A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


THE MIDDLE AGES. 


'233 


The events that immediately preceded the fall of Rome were of the most 
terrific character. The whole of Europe seemed covered with armies of 
fighting men. 

There was, indeed, a general movement from Great Britain to the shores 
of China, in Asia. The lives of several millions of human beings were sac¬ 
rificed in this frightful convulsion. At last, Odoacer , chief of the Ileruli, a 
German people, was made king of Rome. The barbarians had now full poss¬ 
ession of Italy. Roman civilization was at once extinguished. The books, 
paintings, statues, and works of art which the Romans had robbed from other 
nations, or had themselves produced, were destroyed by its rude illiterate 
conquerors. The Dark Ages , or, as they are frequently called, the Middle 
Ages, which continued fora thousand years, now began. Kings and princes 
made it their boast that thev could neither read nor write. Learning was 
confined almost wholly to the Monks. In the universal ignorance, an infinite 
variety of superstitions orerspread the minds of men. 

An eclipse of the sun was thought to be a forerunner of the end of the 
earth; comets were deemed fiery monsters threatening war, pestilence, and 
famine; and even common events were imparted to miraculous causes. The 
belief in witchcraft was universal. Ghosts were imagined to walk abroad at 
night, fairies to dance in the meadows; and every house and home was haunt¬ 
ed bv good or evil spirits. Men were tried, not by judge and jury, but by 
ordeals of fire and water. Judicial perjury prevailed everywhere. Robbery 
by land, and piracy by sea, were practiced by kings and nobles. Yet this 
page of darkness was relieved by some pleasing passages. We are told of 
knights and fair ladies who went to the field, with their falcons; knights errant 
traversed the country in search of adventures; the crusades ran their wild 
career. The reformation broke the spell of superstition; one by one, the 
modern nations of Europe were founded; and at last, about the commence¬ 
ment of the sixteenth century, the age of darkness ceased, and a new Era of 
Eight dawned upon the world. 

THE MODERN KINGDOMS OF EUROPE.. 


The present states and kingdoms of Europe have all originated within 
the period called Modern History. France became a kingdom in the time of 
Clovis, A. 1 )., 481; England in S27; and Spain in 1479. The power of Aus¬ 
tria was founded in 1273; Prussia became a kingdom in 1701; Germany became 
a distinct monarchy in SS3; Denmark about 1050; and Russia about 1050. 
These kingdoms were originally built upon the feudal system; but though 
in some cases the forms of government continue, their original character has 


yielded to the softening influence of modern civilization. 

CHRONOLOGY OF PRINCIPAL EVENTS. B. C. 

First settlement .of Greece by Inachus. lS 5 6 

Athens founded. l 5 S^ 







,\ 


234 


A 


MANUAL 


i 


OF GEOGRAPHX* 


The celebrated poet, Homer, lived. 1000 

Rome founded..;**'”*_' 

Tarquine expelled. 5 °^ 

Rome taken by the Gauls.. . ^ 9 

Alexander sets out for the conquest of Persia.. • 33 1 

Greece reduced to a Roman province. . 1 4 ^ 

Gaul or France conquered by Caesar... • 55 

Great Britain invaded by Caesar. 5 ° 

Begining of the Roman empire. 3 ° 

A. I). 


London-founded by the Romans. 

Roman empire divided.... 

End of the Roman empire in the west. 

Spain conquered by. the Saracens. 

Charlemagne crowned Emperor ot the west. . . . 

First Crusade.. 

Kingdom of Portugal founded.. 

Gunpowder first known in Europe.. 

Printing invented. 

America discovered by Columbus. 

Beginning of Luther’s Reformation. 

Telescopes invented in Germany. 

Charles I,, of England, beheaded. 

Prussia becomes a kingdom. 

Great earthquake at Lisbon. 

French Revolution. 

Louis XVI. beheaded. ... 

Italy conquored by Bonaparte... 

Napoleon Bonaparte crowned emperor of France. 

Battle of Waterloo—Napoleon overthrown. 

Death of Napoleon.. 

French Revolution—Louis Philippe proclaimed king.. 

Belgium separated from Holland. 

Victoria proclaimed queen of Great Britain. 

Louis Philippe dethroned—France a republic. 

Franco—Prussian war. 


5° 

395 

476 

7 L 3 
800 
1096 
1 \T)2 

133 ° 

l 444 

H9 2 

I 5 I 7 

1 59° 
1642 
1701 
1 755 

1789 
i6 93 
1 796 
1804 
rSi5 
1821 
1830 
1S30 

l $37 

184S 

1S71 


GREAT BRITAIN. 


MAP EXERCISES. 

Locate the following: 

Capes: —Land’s End, Duncansby Head, Wrath, Clear, Mizen, 
Erris Head, Malin Head. 











































A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY.' 


2:m V 

Gulfs, etc.:— Galway, Donegal, Cardigan, Dornoch Firth, Moray 
hirth, Firth of Forth, Firth of Tay, The Wash, Salway Forth. 
Seas: —Irish, North. 

Straits and Channels.— Dover, English, North, St. Georges, 
Bristol, Menai. 

Islands. —Great Britain, Ireland, Man, Scillv, Wight, Anglesey^ 
Islay, Skye, Hebrides, Orkney, Shetland, Channel, Lewis. 
Mountain Ranges.— Lowther Ilills, Grampian Hills, Cheviot 
Hills, Cambrian, Cumbrian, Pennine. 

Mountain Peaks. —Snowdon, Ben Nevis. 

Lakes.— Erne, Neagh. 

Rivers.— Thames, Severn, Clyde, Shannon, Humber, Trent. 
Relative Position.— In what direction is London from Liver-, 
pool? from Dublin? Edinburgh? Paris? Strait of Dover?' 
Liverpool from Glasgow? Cork? 

T ravels.— On what bodies of water would you sail in going 
from London to Liverpool? Dublin? Dundee? St. Petersburg.^ 
Liverpool to Lisbon? Havre? Bremen? Bristol? New York? 
Columbus, O.? 

Miscellaneous.— What is the latitude of London? Dublin? 
Edinburgh? What is the longitude of each of these places?- 
What is the difference of time between London and Dublin? 
Between London and Berlin? What seasons has the northern, 
part of Scotland? 


DESCRIPTION. 


POSITION. 

1. Great Britain is situated in the north-western part of Europe' 
and is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, North Sea, English 
Channel and Strait of Dover. 

It lies between 50 0 and 5S 0 north latitude and between 2 C east 
and io° west longitude. 

EXTENT. 

2. England is 3S0 miles long and 160 wide: area 51,000 square 
miles. Scotland is 300 miles long and 160 wide: area 30,000 square 
miles. Ireland is 300 miles long and 200 wide; area 33,000 
square miles. Wales contains an area of 7,000 square miles. 

GENERAL OUTLINE OF THE COAST. 

3. The coasts are irregular and abound in deep inlets. The 
shores of England are generally rocky. On the English Channels 





236 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


there are high and chalky cliffs, whose white appearance gave 
the island the name of Albion in ancient times. The south-eastern 
-extremity, is a long peninsular projection terminating in what is 
called Land's End. 

The eastern coast of Ireland is low and flat, except the north- 
cast, where the shore is rugged and precipitous. 

CAPES. 

4 . Duncansby Head projects from the north-east of Scotland; 
on the summit is an ancient watch-tower. Cape Wrath projects 
from the north-west of Scotland, and contains a light-house 400 
feet high. Malir. Head projects from northern Ireland and Cape 
Clear, from southern Ireland. 

GULFS AND HAYS. 

5 . Bristol Channel , the largest bay, is twenty miles wide and 
.sixty long. Nearly all the important rivers of Great Britain have 
wide mouths, resembling bays. The mighty waves of the Atlan- 

O J O J 

tic have scooped out some large bays in the west coast of Scot¬ 
land. There are numerous small harbors. 

SEAS. 

6 . The North and Irish Seas belong to this portion of Europe; 
their surfaces are always white with the sails of ships. 

CHANNELS AND STRAITS. 


■ 7 . The following are the principal: 


STRAITS, ETC. 

WIDTH. 

1 

LENGTH. 

Dover . 

21 


English. 

20 to 155 

80 

40 

2 

300 

65 

100 

11 

North. 

St. Georges. . 

3Ienia Strait. 


ISLANDS. 

8 . This division of Europe is an archipelago, embracing 5,500 
islands, but the vast majority are small and rocky. 

The Isle of Man , in the Irish Sea, contains a population who 
still use the Manx language. 

The Isle of Wight is a beautiful and fertile island at the south; 
it presents almost eveiy variety of landscape in miniature. 

Near the southern extremity are the Scilly Isles , 145 in number; 
six are inhabited, the rest are mere rocks. ' Numerous druidical 
monuments are found here. 



















A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


237 

The islands of Guernsey, Jersey, Alderney, and'Sark, lie near 
the French coast, all are inhabited, and belong to England; the- 
largest is twelve miles long. 

o i~> 

Of the numerous islands west of Scotland, 87 are inhabitated 
and cultivated; the products being cattle, sheep, fish, kelp, birds 1 ’ 
eggs, and feathers. The hunting of birds’eggs, by swinging over 
the rocky ledges, is a leading occupation of the people among a 1 !' 
the islands. 

The Orkneys , 70 in number, are rocky, barren and desolate. 

Fifty miles to the north are the Shetland Isles. They are So irr 
number, 40 being inhabited. They are bleak and barren and sur¬ 
rounded by tempestuous seas. 


ISLANDS. 

LENGTH. 

BREADTH 

AREA 

POP. REMARKS AND PRODUCTS. 

Man. 

30 

6 to 12 

280 

54,000 Lead, zinr. iron, copper. 

Wight... 

Shetland.. 

Orkney . 

Hebrides.. 

22 >a 

13ja 

140 

5,338 

2,44S 

3,000 

60,000 Malt, wool, salt, sand for the manufacture 
of glass are exported. 

31,600 Coasts 'bold and rocky with precipitous 
cliffs. 

31,000 73 in number; 30 are inhabited. Oats, 
barley, potatoes, and turnips are the 
chief crops. 

150,000 160 in number. The language is Gaelic. 

Islay. 

25 

17 

8,000 Meal, bog iron ore, lead, and copper mines 

Anglesey, 

20 

17 


51,0001 Wheat, barley oats cattle, fish, copper 
and lead are exported. 

Mull. 

30 

18 


18,000 Surface i* rugged. 


Staffa, 1L miles in circumference, is remarkable for its caverns, the principal of which 
are Fingals, and Clam Shell. 

SURFACE. 

9. In general, the aspect of England is varied and delightful. 
In some parts, verdant plains, watered by copious rivers, extend 
as far as the eye can reach. In others are swelling hills and bend¬ 
ing vales, fertile in grain, waving with wootl, and interspersed 
with meadows. Some tracts abound with prospects of the more 
romantic kind, embracing lofty mountains, craggy rocks, deep 
narrow dells, and tumbling torrents. Here and there are black 
moores, wide heaths, and desolate plains. The south-eastern parts 
are level or slightly undulating while the northern and western- 
portions are hilly and mountainous. 

Wales is a rugged country. 

The surface of Scotland is, in general, much broken by hill and 
dale, mountain and valley. 

Ireland contains immense tracts called bogs , extending in a 
broad belt through the center of the island, producing nothing but 
heath, bogmj rtle, and sedge-grass. The remainder of the soil is 
stony, but" high cultivation has rendered much of if productive. 
The surface of Ireland is generally level, with swelling hills and 
a few mountains of moderate elevations. The general appearance 
of the country is varied and pleasant, destitute of trees, but cheer- 














'"238 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


’ftil on account of its verdure. The bogs furnish ample supplies 
of peat used by the inhabitants for fuel. 

MOUNTAIN RANGES. 

io. The mountain chains of the British Isles are not loftv, but 
few of the peaks have an elevation of more than 3,000 feet. 


MOUNTAIN PEAKS. 


ii. The following are the highest peaks: 


Snowdon, (Wales),. 

Ben Nevis, (Scotland),..’ ’ ’ ‘ ’ ‘ ' ‘ ' 

tOn the one side it Infs a perpendicular precipice of 1 ,500 feet affording' a fine 
prospect.) 

Ben Lomond, (Scotland),. 

Broad Low, (Cheviot Hills). ... . T T .... 

skiddaw. (Cumbrian Mountains),... . 

S eafeil, (C unaihrian Moun tains),.. 


8,600 feet. 
4,870 feet. 


8.820 feet. 
2,740 feet. 
3,022 feet. 
8,830 feet. 


PLAINS AND VALLEYS. 


12. The country known in England as the Fens , is a flat, 
■marshy district near the wash. There are numerous heaths , which 
first derived their name from being covered with a plant by that 
name. They are generally uncultivated, shrubby wastes. The 
downs are sterile tracts, chiefly used as sheep pastures. There are 
no valleys of great extent. The borders of the rivers are generally 
crowded with cities, teeming with population. 


NATURAL CURIOSITIES. 

13. England possesses quite a number of curiosities, consisting 
,of curious peaks, and caverns, petrifying wells, etc. 

In the small island of Staffa is the celebrated basaltic cavern 
.called FingaVs Cave .* lit is 227 feet long, 166 feet high, and 66 
? feet wide-at the mquth. 

. onthe north-western coast of Ireland, 

is an immense jn,ass.of basaltic columns, standing compactly to¬ 
gether, and having from-three to seven sides. 

They are perpendicular,smooth, and regular, as if hewn by art. They 

are of different pieces, two to three feet long, and nicely fitted together like 
ball and socket joints. The Irish legend is that it was built by a race Of giants 
to form a road to Scotland. It i S 600 feet long. 

To the west of this a re the ruins of Dunluce Castle, remarkable 
01 then-fii.tuation pn an eleyated rock cliff overhanging the sea. 


ANTIQUITIES. 

14. There are many ruins and remains of past ages scattered 
over England. Some of these are supposed to have been connec- 
•a£ea with the worship of the Druids, who were the priests of the 










A MANUAL OF (iEOCi U Al’HY. 


239 


ancient Britons. The ruins of ancient abbeys and castles, found 
in different places, are interesting relics of by-gone times. 

Near Perth in Scotland are circular towers of unknown origin. 
There are large inclosures, with vitrified walls, in several places. 

In the south of Scotland are vestiges of Roman roads and camps, 
•and parts of Antoninc's wall , which extended from the Forth to 
the Clyde, 

The remains of Roslin Castle . Melrose Abbey , and other gothic 
structures, are celebrated in song and sketches of tourists. 


LAKES. 


15 . The lakes of England are small, but celebrated for natural 
beauty heightened by cultivation and the country seats around. 

Windermere is ten miles long, and one to two broad. 

JJerwentwater four miles long, is esteemed the moot beautiful. 

The lakes of Scotland are associated with the romance and song 
of that country. 

Loch Lomond , the largest, is thirty miles long, and Sprinkled 
with islands. 

Near by is Loch Katrine , famous for its scenery, accurately 
described in Scott’s charming poem, “The Lady of the Lake.” 

Ireland abounds in lakes and some of them are valuable for their 
fish and commercial importance. 

( 1 ) The largest is Lough Neagh, in the north, fifteen miles long 
and seven broad. 

( 2 ) Erne and Corrib are narrow sheets of water of consider¬ 
able length. 

The lakes of Killarney are famous for their picturesque beauty. 
They contain “the wildest ravines, the finest woods, and some of 
the boldest cascades in Ireland.” 

RIVERS. 

16 . T/ie rivers of the British Isles are for the most part quite 
small. The following are the principal. 


RIVERS 

jl.KNOTH. 

_- 

— 

Thames,. 

213 

Severn,. 

210 

Mersey,. . 

60 

llumber, 

40 

Clyde. 

73 

Tweed, 

93 

>haniion, 

224 

01 re at Ouse, 

100 


AREA or BASIN REMARKS 

B 100 Navigable to London, 60 mile.*. 

Navigable ISO miles; titles perceptible 120 miles, 
ami the bore is violent. 

I Navigable 30 miles. 

I Navigable full course. 

It contains the falls of the Cly le, 230 leet hiirh. 
1 ,n7 « >uly a few miles, but it is remarkable for its 

salmon fisheries. 

8,000 Nearly all of it is navigable. 

1 103. Very tortuous course. 









240 


A MANUAL OP GEOGRAPHY. 


SOIL. 

17 . The soil is not naturally fertile, but diligent and skillful 
cultivation has made it one of the most productive countries of w 
the globe. England is farmed like a garden. The great amount 
of rainfall assists much in the rearing of crops. Owing to their | 
moist climate these islands are covered with a remarkable verdure. 
Ireland and Scotland are less fertile than England. Some of the , 
valleys of Scotland have a good soil. Yet a great part of the 
country is barren. The mountains are naked of trees, and have a 
gloomy but picturesque aspect. The country is divided into the # 
Highlands , in the north, and the Lowlands , in the south. The 
former embrace two-thirds of the territory. The latter presents 
beautiful hills, vales, and cultivated plains, with many fine coun¬ 
try-seats and noble parks. 

CLIMATE, 

iS. England has an atmosphere of fog, rain, and perpetual 
change; yet the climate is mild. The rigors of winter, 
and heats of summer, are tempered by the surrounding sea. 
Many kinds of kitchen vegetables remain uninjured in the ground 
through the. winter. Most of the fields retain theii verdure 
throughout this season. The snows rarely lie upon the earth more 
than two or three days. The Scilly islands have a semi tropical 
climate. 

The climate of Wales is colder than that of England, and snow 
is common among the mountains. 

The climate of Scotland is distinguished for its fogs and drizzling 
rains. Twilight in summer lasts all night. 

o o 

The moisture of Ireland is in excess of that of England. The 
average rain-fall of Great Britain is about 34 . inches. 


ANIMALS. 


19 . The wolf, bear, and some other savage animals have been 
exterminated. The badger, fox, wildcat, weasel, marten, otter, 
squirrel, and darmouse remain. The stag and fallow-deer are 
wholly or partially domesticated on some of the large estates, ex¬ 
cept in some of the forests of Scotland where they are still found 
wild. Hares, pheasants, and rabbits abound in the preseves. 
The domestic quadrupeds have been brought to the highest perfec¬ 
tion by breeding and training. 

Eagles, hawks, and singing-birds are numerous. The domestic 
birds are wholly of foreign origin; poultry from Asia, the Guinea- 
fowl from Africa, peacock from India, pheasant from Colchis, and 
the turkey from America. 




A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


'241 


The reptiles and insects are few. St. Patrick is said to have caused the 
destruction and eternal banishment of all reptiles from Ireland. 

Turbet, dace, sole, cod, plaice, smelt, shrimp, etc. are found along 
the coast. Salmon, trout, etc., frequent the rivers. Shell-fish 
abound. 

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIONS. 

20. But few of the vegetable products of England are indige¬ 
nous. The most useful plants have been imported from the con¬ 
tinent. 

Wheat, rye, barley, oats, and cattle are staple products. Flax 
and potatoes are leading crops of Ireland. Horses are raised in 
consideiable numbers. It is curious that this animal dwindles to 
a pony in the northern British isles. 

MANUFACTURES. 

21. Great Britain surpasses all other countries in the extent, 
variety, and perfection of its manufactures. They consist of cot¬ 
tons, woolens, linens, hardware, cutlery, machinery, railroad-iron, 
glass, paper, prepared tobacco, flour, butter, whiskey, etc. 


MIN ERALS. 

22. Salt, iron, coal, and tin are abundant. The resources of 
the British isles in their useful minerals surpasses those of any 
other country, excepting the United States. 

England furnishes more than one-half of all the coal, nearly 
one-half of all the iron, and one-third of all the lead used in the 
world, beside more tin and copper than any other country. 

Slate and limestone are common in Wales. 

Marble and some gold and silver have been found in Ireland; 
the coal of the latter country is of inferior quality. 


COMMERCE. » 

23. In the extent of her commerce, Great Britain exceeds every 
other country on the globe. In 1S79 (the latest official report) 
the imports amounted to £363,000,000; the exports , £249,000,000. 

The chief articles of import are as follows : Giain, seeds, fruits, animals 
and animal provisions, tobacco, cotton, wool, lumber, cordage, cotlee, teas, 
spices, etc.; the exports are fuel, raw metals, pottery, glassware, machines, 
vessels, cotton and woolen goods, clothing, cutlery, hardware, yarn, etc. hole 
number ot merchant vessels 26,000, of 6,550.000 ton>, manned by 210,000 men. 


NATURAL ADVANTAGES. 

24. (Let the pupil give the natural advantages for commerce, 
agriculture, and manufacturing, from what he has learned.) 





242 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. 

25. Railroads and canals cross in every direction. The com¬ 
mon roads are the best in the world. Electric telegraphs connect 
London with every quarter of the globe. I11 no country is the 
internal intercourse rendered so easy as in England. There about 
105,000 miles of telegraph wire. 

NUMBER OF MILES OF RAILROAD. 


. England,.... 20,192 

.Scotland,.. 4*609 

Ireland,. 3*667 

Total,. 28,468 


Caledonian canal, situated in northern Scotland, is the most 
important of its kind in Great Britain and is sixty miles long. 

INHABITANTS. 

26. The inhabitants ot Great Britain are divided into three 
classes : the nobility, which includes dukes, marquises, earls, vis- I 
counts, and barons ; the gentry, including those who are distin- i 
guished for wealth, education, talents, or official station ; and the 
commonality, which comprises the mechanics, tradesmen, and the 
working classes generally. The English are a robust, florid, hand¬ 
some people, fond of domestic life, and largely addicted to athletic 
amusements. 

The people of Wales are industrious and frugal. The people 
are descendants of an ancient Celtic tribe, and their original lan- 
guage is still preserved and spoken by some of the people. 

The Scotch are divided into the Highlanders and Lowlanders. 
The former are of Celtic origin, and speak what is called the 
Gaelic dia'ect. 

They still retain many of their ancient manners and dress. In general 
the Scottish nation has displayed high intellect, especially in history, philoso¬ 
phy, poetry, and prose fiction. Nearly a’l their lakes, rivers and mountains 
are celebrated in the songs of Burns, Ramsey, and other poets. Scott has 
thrown a peculiar charm over many localities by his ballads and historical 
romances. 

# In the northeast of Ireland, a large part of the population con- I 
sists of the descendants of English and Scotch, who settled in the 
country many years ago. The rest are of Celtic origin. Their 
native language, called the Irish or Erse, resembles that of the 
W elsh and Scotch Highlanders. In some parts of the south and 
west many of the people know no other language. The beggars 
in Ireland are numerous, and celebrated for their eloquence. 

A great part of the peasantry live in miserable mud cabins, usually with a 
floor of clay, and without windows- and chimneys. The chief food of the 1 

















A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


243 


peasants cons.sts of potatoes and milk. In 1S47, a blight, called the rot, fell 
upon the potato crop, in consequence of which the country was desolated by 
amine and pestilence. It is supposed that three or fou/hundred thousand 
persons died of starvation during this frightful period. 

h ^fcf ,e ~!<? ble for wit, cheerfulness, and warmth of 

Thomoc \r SW ‘\ r G .?. ldsmith ’ Steele . Grattan, Curran, Burke, 

fVmUh«d J y°ir' e ’. We m f Cn - alK ‘ °’ Conne11 - all I.ishmen, have 
1 urn is lied brilliant examples in the highest walks of genius. 

NUMBER OF INHABITANTS. 

ii "S ' 6 f°^ ovv ' n .^ table will exhibit the population of the 
iintish Empire, together with the area : 



AKEA. I 

POPULATION. 

England and Wales.. 

(IQ Oil 

--- 

Scotland. . 

0o,»> 1 i | 

QA | lip 

25,480,000 

Ireland. 

Islands in British waters.. 

•Soldiers and Sailors abroad. 


dUfiOo 

32, Sap 
308 

3,661,000 

5,304.000 

145,000 

216,000 

Total. 


1 0 1 ill IW 




34,866,000 



AREA. I 

POPULATION. 

Foreign possessions in Europe... 


. 14o! 

391,000 
933,000 
3,085,000 

172,000 
2,854.000 
105 non ()()<■ 

Africa. 

“ “ Asia . 


“ “ “ Australia. 


2,821,000 

“ “ America. 


3,359,000 

f, 97H 1 Mill 




Total foreign possessions. 

\ 

7,890,000, 

anii iwn non 

Total British Empire. 


240,487,000 

OCCUPATION. 



2 S. The leading occupations are 
sind mining. 

manufacturing, 

commerce, 


Agriculture engages many of the inhabitants. Many of the 
farms in England aie large, while those of Wales and Scotland 
are very small, the vast majority of land-owners having less than 
five acres. England surpasses every other country in the skill 
with which its agriculture is conducted. In the rest of the king¬ 
dom agriculture is in a more backward state. 

The fisheries of Great Britain give employment to many thou¬ 
sands of people. 

LANGUAGE. 


29 . The prevailing language is the English, but in many parts 
outside of England, the inhabitants still use the original tongues. 

































244 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


GOVERNMENT. 

30. The Government of Great Britain is a limited hereditary 
monarchy. 

The Parliament consists of a House of Lords and House of 
Commons. These make the laws which must be ratified by the 
sovereign. The Commons constitute the Lower House and are 
elected by the people ; the Lords hold their positions ^y heredi¬ 
tary right. The supreme power is vested in a king ox queen. The 
present ruler is Queen Victoiia. 

There are several palaces occasionally occupied by the sovereign. That 
in London, called the Buckingham Palace , is one of the finest. Windsor 
Castle , a splendid pile of buildings, in the ancient style, twenty miles from 
London, is another royal residence. A summer residence of the royal family 
is at Balmoral Castle, Scotland. 

EDUCATION. 

31. In England education is now pretty generally provided for y 
although for the poorer classes the means are not yet ample and 
many depend on Sunday Schools for instruction. There is consid¬ 
erable illiteracy among the Irish. 

Scotland is noted for the general diffusion of education among 
the people. There are many universities and schools of a superior 
order, especially in Scotland and England. The universities of 
Oxford, Cambridge, and Edinburg are world -renowned. 

RELIGION. 

32. The established religion of England is Episcopacy. The 
king or queen is the supreme head of the church, which is gov- I 
erned bv two archbishops and 26 bishops; in the colonies and 
dependencies, 32 bishops. The archbishop of Canterbury is styled 

th q primate of all England. 

Dissenters are numerous, embracing Methodists, Baptists, Qua¬ 
kers, Roman Catholics, etc. These comprise about one-half the 
population. 

The Presbyterian is the established church of Scotland, but 
there is a large secession from this called the Free Church of Scot- 
land , besides a considerable body of dissenters. 

More than three-fourths of the people of Ireland are Roman 
Catholics', in the north the Presbyterian faith prevails. 

CITIES. 

33. London, the capital of the kingdom, is the richest and most 
populous city in the world. It has a population nearly equal to- 
that of Ohio and West Virginia combined. The river Thames 
passes through it, and over this there are several splendid bridges. 





A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


245 


°1 he largest is 1239 feet in length. Theic is a passage called 
the tunnel , which goes under the river Thames from one side to 
the other. 

Among the numerous splendid edifices in London, are the Parliamentary 
Houses, Westminster Abbey, St. Paul’s Cathedral, the Tower, the Bank of 
England and the Royal Exchange. The )Vest Knd contains the residences 
of the nobility and gentry, and the eastern part is devoted to business. Lou¬ 
don, at all times has an atmosphere dimmed with smoke; but in the winter, 
the smoke and fog together, render it so dark, that it is often necessary to 
light the lamps of the streets during the day. A celebrated English poet 
thus describes the scene at this period: 

“No sun, no moon, 

No morn, no noon, 

No dusk, no dawn 

No proper time of day. 

No sky, no earthly view. 

No distance looking blue, 

No road, no street 

No ’tother side the way.” 

The country for miles around London is thickly studded with dwellings, 
sometimes in groups, and sometimes standing apart, the grounds being taste¬ 
fully laid out and ornamented with gardens and pleasure grounds. 

Among the other cities of note are Liverpool, which has an ex¬ 
tensive trade with America; Manchester, Limed for its manufac¬ 
ture of woolen goods; Birmingham, for its hardware; Sheffield 
for its cutlery; Leeds, for its woolen goods; Coventry, for its 
watches; Bath , one of the handsomest cities in England, is noted 
for its mineral waters. 

Bristol, Cheltenham and Brighton are also well known as water¬ 
ing places. 

Merthy Tydvi /, the chief city of Wales is noted for its iron fur- 
nances. 

Edinburgh, the capital of Scotland, is renowned for its great 
number of literary men, and is one of the most interesting cities 
in the world. 

Glasgow is situated in the midst of coal and iron mines and is 
noted for its manufactories; Melrose, for the fine ruins of its abbey; 
Ayr, as being near the birthplace of the poet, Burns; Aberdeen, 
for its university; Paisley and Pesth are manufacturing cities. 

Dublin is the capital of Ireland, It has some splendid streets, 
and many beautiful edifices. 

Belfast has the largest linen factories in the world. Cork has 
an extensive trade. 




m 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


Limerick and Galway are important sea ports on the west. 
The following is a list of the principal cities, with their popula¬ 
tion: 


London.3,533,000 

Glasgow. 550,000 

Liverpool . 521.000 

Manchester. 500,000 

Birmingham. 377.000 

Dublin . 315,000 

Deeds . 292,000 

Sheffield. 275,000 

Edinburgh. 219,000 

Bristol. 200,000 

Belfast. 175,000 

Bradford.. 17-1,000 


Dundee. 

Newcastle. 

Hull. 


Portsmouth... 


Leicester. 

Sunderland. 

Brighton. 

Aberdeen. 


Merthyr-Tydvil . 

Nottingham. 


Cork . 



FOREIGN POSSESSIONS. 


34- The following are the leading foreign 
with area and populations: 


possessions, together 



AREA. 

POFL’N. 


vtIUi ell Cell . 

Malta. 

1.93 

1 IQ 

18,000 

Xj, 

> Europe. 


J iO 

14/,0U0 

British India. 

•), t 0< 
£QU QJ 1 

150,000 

J 

Celyon. 



1 

Hong-Kong. 


Z, i 00,UUv) 

1 

Nicobar Isles. 

goj 

loU.OOO 

> Asia. 

1 

t 

Andaman Islands... . 

9 

5,000 

Laccadive Islands. 


i 4.900 

i 

J 

Gape Colony. 

i 44 
1OO 0 'n 

o,o00 

Natal. 

J. « * ) *JU 

< 2I,UUU 

1 

r J ransvaal.. 

119710 

«5o i ,000 


Sierra Leone. 

HO, i 40 

1,000 

40,000 

89,000 

^ Africa. 

Gold ( oast. 

I 

Australia. 

9 Oftfi QQ7 

400,000 

J 

) 

J-Oceanica. 

J 

1 

Tasmania. 

New Zealand . 

26,215 

1AJ 979 

2, J i 4.UUU 
110,000 

leejee Islands. 


4oz ,000 

Canada., 

Newfoundland... 

o.Uoo 

3,372,000 

112.000 

4.351,00i; 

Jamaica. 

British Giivana. 

4,250 

ft" 1 O' 

147,000 

558,000 

America. 

British Honduras .... 

Falkland lies. 

7,562 

1 QQQ 

240, oOO 
25,000 
l,o94 

1 

J 


4,0*10 


HISTORY. 

35 - The kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland includes England, Wales , 
Scot/and , and Ireland. These several divisions anciently constituted so many 
different nations. Wales has been attached to England since 1283, A. D - 
Scotland was united to it in 1707, and Ireland in 1S00: all these Countries 

finally coming under one legislation. Thus the present United Kingdom was 
formed. 

England appears so prominently in the history of the British Islands that 
m common language, we often speak of England as embracing the whole 
empire, and of the English as meaning the whole people. England from the 
first has been the leading kingdom. 

The Phoenicians and Carthaginians were acquainted with these islands, 
and the former visited them frequently for the sake of obtaining tin. Caesar 














































































A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


247 


gives the first knowledge of this country. It was known to the Romans by 
the names Britania and Albion. The inhabitants called Britons were of 
the Celtic race. 

England was conquered by the Romans, under Julius Caesar, 55 B. C. 
He describes the Britons as living in scattered villages, on the hanks of rivers, 
and in the midst of forests. Most of them were complete savages, tattooirtg 
their skins, and dressing in the hides of cattle. 

The southern tribes were more civilized than those of the north. They 
practiced agriculture in a rude manner. 

They had no books, or means of recording events, and were divided into 
numerous tribes, each having a chief. The Druids were the priests and 
lawgivers, the chiefs only commanding in time of war. Under the swav of 
the Romans, towns and castles were built, and London, which was at first a 
forest, became a rich and populous city. Caledonia , now Scotland, was in¬ 
habited by Scots and Piets, a wild and warlike people, who made frequent in¬ 
cursions into the territories of the Romans. The Romans never conquored 
Scotland. Ireland, and some of the Welsh, long continued independent in 
their mountains. England was under Roman control for nearly 500 years. 
About the year 440, the Romans were comptdled, in order to protect their 
cities and territories in Italy from barbarians, who began to pour in there, to 
withdraw their troops from Britain, as well as other remote provinces. 

In 44S A. D., a party of 300 Northmen , called Saxons, led by ITengist 
and Ilorsa, landed in Britain. The people suffering under the ravages of the 
Scots and Piets, asked for their assistance. This was granted, and the enemy 
was driven back. 

The result was that the Saxons obtained the mastery, and divided Eng¬ 
land into seven kingdoms, called the Saxon Heptarchy, A. I). 559. The Sax¬ 
ons were composed partly of a tribe ot' Angles', whence these invaders, who 
became the founders of the English people, are called Anglo-Saxons—a name 
still given to their descendants. They at last quarreled among themselves, 
and Egbert, King of Wessex, reduced the other tribes. He was accordingly 
crowned, A. D. §27, King of Angle Land, thus establishing the kingdom of 
England. 

Alfred, who received the crown in 871, was one of the greatest kings that 
ever sat upon the throne of England, lie established good laws, encouraged 
learning, instituted the right of trial by jury, and at last died^oi, A. D., loved 
by his subjects, feared by his enemies, and admired by mankind. 

From this period, the history of England flows on in an unbroken current. 

It is impossible for us to give even an outline of the history of that coun¬ 
try, and the events which have at last rendered it the mightiest empire on the 
face of the globe. We can only notice a few of the leading incidents. 

In the year 1066, the Monarch line of Kings was introduced by William,. 
Duke of Normandy. In 1215, the barong of England compelled King John 
to sign what is called Magna Charta , by which the power of the crown was 
limited, and the liberties of the people in some degree acknowledged and se- 






A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


m 

cured. In the reign of Henry VII. occurred the celebrated War of the Roses, 
so called because those attached to the house of Lancaster wore red roses as 
their badges, and those attached to the house of York wore white roses. In 
I 534 > Henry the VIII. caused the Church of England to be separated from 
the Church of Rome. In 1605 the celebrated Gunpozvder Plot took place. 
In 1649, England became a commonwealth, and Oliver Cromwell the chief 
ruler. 


ASIA. 


a 


MAP EXERCISES: 

Locate the following: 

Rivers. —Obe, \ enisei, Lena, Araoor, Amoo, Jordan, Indus, 
Ganges, Brahmaputra, Cambodia, Irawaddy, Salwen. Eu¬ 
phrates, Tigris, Helmund, Meinam, Syr, Yangtse Kiang, 
Hoang Ho, Pei Ho, Tarim, Irtysh, Upper Tungouska, 
Anadyr, Nerbudda, Godavery, Krishna, Sikiang, Tobol, Sun¬ 
gari. 

Capes.— North East, Chelagskoi, East, Lopatka, Cambodia, 
Comorin, Pt DeGalle, El Had, Fartak, Romania, Negrais. 

Gulfs and Bays. —Obe, Taimyr, Anadyr, Bengal, Tartary. Petch- 
ili, Ton g Ki ng, Persian, Cutch, Cambay* Siam, Aden Suez. 

Straits.— Behring, Corea, Malacca, Ormuz, Bab-el-Mandeb, 
Formosa. 


Islands.— Ceylon, Formosa, Hainan, Saghallen, Kiusiu, Niphon, j 
Sikoke, Jesso, Nicobar, Andaman, Maidive, Laccadive, New 
Siberia, Kurile, Wrangel Land, Loo Choo. 

MouNTAm Ranges— Zagros, Himalaya, Karakorum, Kuenlun 
Thian Shan, Altai, Eastern Ghauts, Western Ghauts, Vind- ! 
hya, Elburz, Labanon, Taurus, Ural, Hindo Koosh, Suleiman 
\ ablonoi, Stanovoi, Gr Khingan, Peling, Yunling, Nanling. j 
Mountain Peaks.— Everest, Dhawalagiri, Kanchinjinga, Dap¬ 
sang, Blelucha, Fusiyama, Koriask, Sivelutch. Sinai, Carmel 
Olives, Ararat, Kasbek, Elbrooz. 


Deserts—G obi, Thurr, Dahna, Syrian, Iran, Deccan, Pamir 
Kirghiz, 1 undras. 

Lakes. —JBalkash, Baikal, Zaisan. Ten; 

an g, Lop, Van, Salumeh, Urumiah, 

Hamoon. 


ign, Issik, Tungting 
Bosting, 


Poy- 
Tiberias, 


Towns.— Mecca Medina, Muscat, Mocha, Jerusalem, Bey root 
Irkoutsk, Nikolaiefsk, Tashkend, Tobolsk, Khiva, Bokhara’ 
Teheran, Bushire, Kelat, Cabool, Scutari, Smyrna, Trebizond] 






A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


‘249 


Damascus, Palmyra, Bethlehem, Er Riad, Nankin, Hang¬ 
chow, Shanghai, Ningpo. Foochow, Amoy, Canton, Macao, 
Hong Kong, Lassa, Yeddo, Miako, Osaca, Yokohama, Na¬ 
gasaki. Calcutta, Bombay, Madras, Benares, Agra, Lucknow, 
Delhi, Calombo, Bangkok. Mandelay, Rangoon, Singapore, 
Saigon, Meshed, Antioch, Hue, Hakodadi, Ispahan,Cashgar, 
Kandahar, Bagdad, Pekin. 

Countries.— China, Japan, Persia, Arabia, India, Afghanistan, 
Beloochistan, lurkistan, Thibet, Turkey, Hadramaut, Oman, 
Yemen, Hedja, Syria, NeJjed, Mongolia, Corea, Siam, Anam, 
Cochin China, Manchooria, Napal, Bhotan. 

Miscellaneous. —What capitals are near the 40° of lat. ? What 
important cities on or near the Tropic of Cancer? What place in 
Asia has the longest day? What part of Asia has midnight when 
it is noon at Washington? What capitals near the meridian 
opposite to Washington? What bodies of water and what 
countries are crossed bv the 50th meridian east longitude? 
By 70 0 ? 

Relative Position. —In what direction is Ceylon from Arabia? 
from Lake Balkash? Gull of Cutch? Pekin? Japan from 
Kamtchatka? Anam? Arabia? Tobolsk? Philippine Islands? 
Hue from Mecca? Ceylon? Jerusalem? 

Travels.— What countries would you cross in traveling by land 
from Arabia to Farther India? to Liberia? to China? from 
Bushire to Cash gar? to Hue? to Smyrna? to Mecca? On 
what bodies ot water would you sail in going from Pekin to 
Bushire? to Calcutta? to Constantinople? to Nicolaieff? to 
Bangkok? from Rangoon to Yokohama? to San Francisco? 
to New Yoik? to London? to Vienna? to Muscat? to Vera 
Cruz? 


DESCRIPTION. 


POSITION. 

1. (i J It is bounded on the north by the Arctic ocean and 
Europe, on the east by the Pacific, on the south by the Pacific and 
Indian oceans, and on the west by Europe, the Mediterranean and 
Red seas, and the isthmus of Suez. 

(2) Latitude and Longitude. In latitude itextends from i° north 
to 78° north, and in long, from 26° east to 170° west of Greenwich. 

EXTENT. 

2. Its greatest length from east to west is 7,600 miles and 
greatest breadth 5.160 miles. Area 17,100,000 square miles, or 
one third of all the land of the globe. 




250 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


Distance from Constantinople to Babylon,. 

“ “ “ “ River Indus,. 

“ “ Jerusalem,. 

“ “ “ “ Mecca,. 

“ “ “ “ Tobolsk,. 

“ “ “ “ Niphon,. 

“ Babylon to Ninevah,. 

“ “ “ “ Mouth of Ganges,. 

“ “ “ “ Jerusalem,.. 

“ “ “ “ Constantinople.. 

“ “ “ “ Greece,. 

“ “ “ “ Rome,... 

GENERAL OUTLINE OF THE COAST. 


1,000 

miles- 

2,300 

(4 

700 

k< 

1,200 

44 

i,Soo 

44 

5,000 

'4 

250 

44 

2,600 

4 4 - 

420 

44 

1,000 

44 

I, 5 °° 

44 

2,500 

44 


3 *- The coast of Asia is very irregular, abounding in large inlets- 
and correspondingly large projections. Many fine harbors exist. 
It has more than 33,000 miles ot coast line or one mile to every 
528 square miles of surface. 

CAPES. 

4. The most northern cape is Northeast cape; the most eastern 
cape is East cape; the most southern, Cape Romania; Comorin 
projects from the south of India, etc. (The pupil may simply or 
add other capes, giving their location.) 

GULFS AND BAYS. 

5. The Gulf of Obe is in the northwestern part of Siberia and 
is tributary to the Arctic Ocean. Petchili gulf is in the Yellow 
sea. It receives the Pei Ho and Hoang Ho rivers. The Per¬ 
sian gulf lies between Persia and Arabia and is an arm of the 
Arabian sea. It receives the Shat-el-Arab, formed by the conflu¬ 
ence of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers. (Let the pupil locate 
other gulfs and bays in the same manner.) 

The following list gives the dimensions and approximate 
areas of some of the inlets of Asia: 


NAME. 

LENGTH. 

BREADTH. 

APPROX. AREA. 

Persian Gulf. 

550 mi. 

220 mi. 

1 44 

100,000 sq. mi. 
20,000 “ “ 
75,COO “ “ 

10,000 “ “ 
120,000 “ “ 
750,000 “ “ 

Petchili. 

Obe. 

jCA 4 4 

J OU 

Tonquin.. 

Siam. 

300 “ 
500 “ 

1 91M) 44 

IOUCO zuu 

150 “ 

Q AA 4 4 

Bengal. 

oUU 

QAA 44 



OVU 


SEAS. 


6- Thiiteen seas boidei upon Asia; besides these are a number 
of inland seas. The Red sea west of Arabia received its name 
from the color of its waters owing to microscopic plants existino- 
in the water. 

































A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


251 


SEAS. 

LENGTH. BREADTH. 

AREA. 

Yellow. 

Caspian. 

020 mi. 400 mi. 

7«>0 “ 270 “ 

200,000 s<j. mi. 
240,000 “ “ 
24,500 “ “ 

Aral. 

Dead... 

* 14 .* " 

Red . . 

41 l * si „*■* 

4S}> •• 

185,000 “ “ 

200,000 “ 

Japan.. 


n .^ _• a.a 

OUU .)(HJ “ 


J lie Dead sea i* 1,278 feet deep, and the Red, (100, 


CHANNELS, STRAITS, ETC. 


. 7 - The stiait of Bab-el-Mandeb separates Arabia from Aby- 
sima and connects the Red sea to the Gulf of Aden ; Behrinor’s 
stiait separates North America from Asia and connects, etc. 


NAM K. 

WIDTH. 

LENGTH. 

Rah-el-mandeb.. ... 

20 miles. 


Ormuz... 

25 “ 

520 miles. 

0 esso. 

OU 

12 “ 

150 “ 

Hehriug’s ... 

no 44 

•-m: 


Tartary. 

..0 

400 “ 

( 'orea. 

120 “ 




ISLANDS. 


8. Many of the islands ot Asia are important. The following 
are the principal : 


NAME. 

L’TH. 

BR’DTH 

A R E A . 

POP'TION. 

Formosa.. 

245 111 

100 m 

14,932 

3,000,000 

Hainan.... 

200.*‘ 

115 “ 

12,000 

1,000,(XX) 

Ceylon_ 

271 “ 

137 “ 

24,700 

2,407,000 

Loo Choo 
(86 Isles', 
A ndamau . 

Go “ 

15 “ 

2.550 

167,01-0 

33,500 

(0 isles) 
N icohar.. 



1,2(50 

6,00 J 

N’ wSiheria 

15 •• 

80 * 4 

Saghallen.. 

514 “ 

17to2S“ 

47.500 

i:;,(HX) 

Jesso . 

290 *• 

245 “ 

62,500 

120,000 

Niphon 
Japan, 3850 

900 “ 

2S0 “ 

80,000 

155,50(1 

25,156,000 

33,110,000 


PROlU'CE AND REM ARKS. 


\\ neat. rice, sugar cane, petroleum, tigs* 
oranges, peaches, and sulphur. 

Timber, pearl, wax. coral, and salt, 
j Coffee, plumbago, cinnamon, tobacco, rice, 
( gold, and iron. 

(Provisions, live-stock, tin, copper, salt, 
l and sulphur. 

(Sterile soil, and inhabited by a very do- 
} graded race of savages. 

(Tobacco, sugar, cocoa-nuts, oranges, and 
( bamboos. 

(Curious vegetable and animal fossil ro- 
I mains. (Sterile, frozen region.; 

Lignitic coal. (Severe climate ) 

(Wheat, rice, hemp, tobacco, fruits, anti 
/ dried-fish. (Volcanic.) 

—, . Tea, rice, cotton, sugar, and fruits. 

33,110,000Silk, tea, Japanned ware, and fish. 


PENINSULAS. 

9. Arabia, Hindoostan and Farther India are the leading penin¬ 
sulas. Corea is 600 miles long and 130 wide and contains 8,000 
square miles. It has a cold climate and is noted for its breed of 
dwarf horses three feet high. 



























































;252 


A. MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


Kamtscliatka is a volcanic piojection from Siberia. Its climate 
is cold and soil sterile. Asia Minor is the easternmost projection 
*of Asia, and is an extensive region. 


PENINSULAS. 


LENGTH. 


BREADTH. 


AREA. 


Arabia. 

/Hindooelan. 
Farther India 
Kamtschatka 

>Corea. 

Asia Minor .. 


1,400 miles. 
1,870 - k 
2,000 “ 

8i 0 “ 

000 “ 
7'jO “ 


800 miles. 
1,575 “ 

1,200 “ 
280 “ 
135 “ 

420 “ 


920.000 sq. mi 
1,280,000 “ “ 

200,000 “ ' “ 
80,000 “ “ 
270,CEO “ “ 


GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SURFACE. 


to. The physical features of Asia are grand and remarkable. 
In the center is an immense plateau, consisting of naked moun¬ 
tains, enormous rocks, vast deserts and plains. 


In these elevated regions, the great rivers which flow north into 
the Arctic ocean, or'south and east into the Indian and Pacific 
•oceans, have their sources. Here, also, the chief ranges of mount¬ 
ains in Asia form a stupendous rampart from which others branch 
out and extend over the-country. Here are the lofty Himalayas , 
the most gigantic pile of rock on the globe, many of whose colos¬ 
sal peaks are almost lost to sight as they seem to penetrate the 
.-sky itself. 

The Altai mountains separate the great Siberia and its cold 
from central Asia. 

ii. The following table exhibits the names of the principal 
..mountain ranges with their mean height. 


NAME. 

Himalaya ( u the abode of snow, ”). 

Altai ,(i. e. Golden Mountain). 

JLebanon (“ the white mountain”).. 
Thian Shan (celestial mountain). 

K uen kin. 

Hindoo Koosh. 

(Karakorum. 

’Taurus. . 

•Ghaut’s Eastern. 

Ghaut’s Western.. .. 


MEAN HEIGHT. 
16.000 to 18,000 
8,000 
7,000 
18,000 
1 S,ooo 
18,000 
iS,ooo to 19,000 
9,000 to 19.000 
3,000 to 19,000 
5,000 to I 9.000 


MOUNTAIN PEAKS. 

12. Many of the peaks of Asia are interesting because of the 
'historical incidents connected with them. Near the Isthmus of 
.Suez is Mount Horeb , upon which God appeared to Moses and 
commanded him to deliver his countrymen; and Mount Sinai 
-upon which he gave the law. Mount Ararat is in Armenia, upon 
■which the ark is supposed to have rested after the flood. Mount 
Herman, in the,north of Palestine, is associated with the division 
the promised land among the-twelve tribes of the children of 





































A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


25£ 


Israel, and Mount Harmel is where the prophet Elijah triumphed 
over the priests of Baal. 


NAME. 

NAME. 

Nanda Devi. 

.. .25,66*2 feet. 

Sinai 

.. 9^:100 feet.- 

Everest. 

.29,000 “ 

Carmel.. 

. 1.500 “ 

Dhawalasriri. 

. 26,8*26 “ 

Herman.. 


Kanchinjfnga. 

.28,156 “ 

Ararat. 

.17,300 “ 

Dapsang . 

.28,278 “ 

Kasbek. 

.16,545 “ 

Fusiyama. 

.14.177 “ 

Elbrooz... 

.18,570 “ 

Nelx>, or Pisgah.. 

. 2,700 “ 

Horeb.. 

. 8,593 “ 

Koriask. 

.10,000 “ 

Adams. 

. 7,380 “ 


Asia has few volcanoes, though its islands are crowded with* 
them. 


PLAINS, ETC. 

13. Notwithstanding the enormous elevation of Asia, it is a flat 
country, consisting of a prodigious plain whose mean elevation is 
not more than 1,150 feet. All of that vast tract northwest of the 
Thian Shan and north of the Altai has a mean elevation of *oo to 
1,200 feet. Much of the southern part is flat. The table lands 
of Asia, like all its other physical characteristics, are gigantic. 

The Pamir Plateau , sometimes called the “ roof of the world” 
is 16,000 feet above the sea-level and is the highest plateau on the* 
globe. From this all the principal mountain chains diverge. 

Gobi (“ sea of sand*’) is an extensive sandy plain in the north¬ 
ern part of the Chinese empire; it contains a few oases; a portion^ 
of it is supposed to be the depression of a large inland sea now 
dried up. Its average elevation is 3,000 feet, and is; 1,200 miles- 
long and from 500 to 700 broad. 

The plateau of Iran, occupying 170,000 square miles, has a mean 
elevation of 4 ,odo to 7,000 feet. Thibet contains 760,000 square- 
miles and is 15,000 feet above sea-level. Other important plains- 
are as follows : Thurr, Dahna. Syrian, Deccan. 


OBJECTS OF INTEREST. 

14. Asia is one of the most interesting parts of the world.- 
Here our first parents were created, here was the paradise of Eden r 
and from thence the whole human family is supposed to have' 
spread. Here nearly all the scenes and events of the Bible trans¬ 
pired. Its historical features will always make it interesting. 

There are many fine landscapes and sublime places among its- 
mountains and rivers ; but these do not form its chief attraction. 
The Holy Land, the ru,i,ns of Babylon and Ninevah, and other 
places are visited by thousands yearly. 

The “wall of China.'*' is. one of the greatest works of ancient 
times. It is 1,250 miles long, 15 to 30 ft. high, 25 feet wide at the 
base and 15 at top, Tovyers occur every 300 feet. It 


























A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY, 


was built 215 years B. C., and employed several million men five 
years in its construction. 


LAKES. 

- I ?' Ia . k f s °f Asia are not numerous and are mostly small 

in size, and with but few exceptions are salt. 


NAME. 

LENGTH. 

BREADTH. 

AREA. 

Baikal .... 

397 

45 

12,500 

Balkash... 

345 

55 

17,000 

Issik .... 



9 A(\R 

Hamoon... 

70 

15 to 20 

1,200 

Poyang. . 
Tungting.. 

80 

40 

2,500 

Van .... 

70 

50 

2.000 

1 rumiali . 

70 

30 

■ 1,800 


REMARKS. 


l.-AJ feet above sea-level. Frozen from Nov. 
ci 11 pri ’ , 8cene of volcanic action. 
Shallow and is surrounded by uninhabited 
country. 

5.300 feet above sea-level. 

stern part shallow; increasing in size. ' 


RIVERS. 

I . 6 \ , Th ^ I S0uthern and northern portions of Asia are well 

wateied. I he central portion is wanting in rivers of note The 

following are the principal : 


NAME. 


AREA 

MILES 

LE’GTH 

OF 

OE 



BASIN 

NAV’ON 

Lena .... 

2,4u0 

800.6CC 



oUU 

Hoang Ho (Yellow) 

2,700 

714,00C 

950,000 

.. 

Yangtse Kiang. 

3 ? 000 

700 

Pei Ho. 

900 

| ' 


Ganges. 

1,960 


1,500 

•Obe... 

3,000 



Yenisei. 

2,5u0 

1,30) 

1 COO 000 

. 1 

Amoo. 


A moor. 

1.500 


1,500 

Brahmaputra... 

1.800 


Cambodia... 

1,800 



Jordan.... 

200 



Irawaddy.. 

1,200 



Euphrates... 

1,800 

1,150 

2,000 


1,195 

295 

Tigris. 


Indus_ 


Tarim.... 



Nerbudda. 

620 




REMARKS. 


JRapid and turbulent, because of its des- 
■ e effects it is calledu lii na’sSorrow 
This, is the most beloved by the Chinese 
\and is called ‘‘Son of the Ocean,” 
f /ibid h* 8 river is said to have 80 mouths. 

(2) It rises 13,000 feet above sea-level • re- 
J ceives 11 tributaries larger than theRliine. 

1 its annual overflow begins about the 1st of 
May and continues till April. The bore 
l rushes U P the river 18 miles per hour 
fish are very abundant. 

| It is of great breadth but flows through a 
frozen region. 

1 A rapid and broad stream. Largely used 
<for irrigation. Lower part navigable. 
(Changes its course frequently. 


\ l r h ‘! 8 ,llan .y cataracts. Its valley is about 


— .v .. j vuuui uuie. 1 . Lo V aliu \ 

£ M l vk j e ’ hemmed in by precipices. 

J ™ * t° n 4 mile f wide. Its delta contains 
( 10,000 square miles. 

) banks 10 aces it has lofty and precipitous 


bafts supported by inflated skins are used 
’m navigation, - ■ 


on navigation. Flows through a mostly 
tsterile region. ' J 


TLV U1UUU .> stream; it c 

150,212,9*9,000 tons of earth each ^ 
is broad and shallow, and shiftin 

hoiK-, /al.r,!,,,, .? , • 


It 


year 
o sand- 


1 n „.i. j , . ' *, ‘Ki'igrtuun is 1111- 

; peded by shallows and rocks. 

SOIL. 

, J 7 /,, I '”’ 6 more , than one-third of Asia is tillable land. Near- 

.) all of Sibei la is .a frozen plain. Arabia .and all that vast region 




















































































A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


255 


of Asia lying south of the Caspian and Aral seas and the Altai 
mountains and north of the Himalayas, has for the most part a 
poor soil. Portions of India are unfit for cultivation. But the 
greater part of India, Farther India and China proper are very 
fertile. Many of the river valleys are highly productive and are 
well filled with a busy population. 

CLIMATE. 

iS. Asia, from its vast extent, stretching from the Arctic re¬ 
gions almost to the equator, possesses every variety of climate. 
In Siberia the cold is intense. North of ^6° north latitude the 
ground is always frozen. 

A temperature of 90* below zero is an annual occurrence. In the north 
the temperature averages 1 degree above zero, the second coldest place in the 
world. 

In Central Asia , upon the lofty table lands, the climate is 
cold because of the great elevation. 

On the Persian Gulf the heat becomes extreme, the thermome¬ 
ter sometimes reaching 125 degrees in the shade 

Mecca is regarded by some as the hottest place on earth, owing to the 
Ifleak rocks behind reflecting the heat of the sun. 

The monsootis occur in south-eastern Asia; they blow from the 
t south-west from April to October, and from the north-east from 
October to April. 

The changing of the monsoons is often accompanied by violent storms of 
thunder and lightning. 

There are many rainless regions in the interior. The great 
mountains on the south prevent the south winds laden with mois¬ 
ture, from distributing their rains on the interior. 

The greatest rainfall in the world occurs just south of the Himalaya 
•mountains; 610 inches fall on an average annually. The average rainfall of 
the peninsula of Hindoo-tan is 1*7.5 inches; of Ceylon 91.7 inches; of Canton 
I />9.2 inches. 

VEGETATION. 

19. The vegetation is greatly diversified from the creeping 
lichens of the north to the splendid productions of the equatorial 
regions. Many of the finest cultivated flowers in Europe and 
America had their origin here. The forests abound in useful 
woods, including the far filmed cedar of Lebanon, the teak, the 
cypress, &c. 

Among the Arotnatic plants are the cinnamon, camphor and 
.cassia. 

Among the fruits besides those common to our climate are the 
•orange, lemon, pomegranate, tamarind, <S:c. A large portion of 




256 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


our choicest garden fiower s are also from Asia. The grape, sugar 
cane,, cotton, wheat, rye, oats, barley and millet are all indigenous: 
to this quarter of the globe and are largely cultivated. 

Tea \s little produced but in Asia, and the finest coffee in the 
world is the product of Arabia. 

In Persia large fields oj roses are cultivated from which is ob¬ 
tained the “ Ottarof Roses.” Various gums and spices are obtained 
in western Asia. 

MINERALS. 

20. The mineral treasures of Asia include the finest prescious 
stones, gold, silver and other metals. Diamonds are found in- 
Deccan, Ueylon, Ural mountains and other places. Gold is most 
abundant in the Altai mountains. 

Silver is obtained in China, Anam, Siberia, Japan and western 
Asia. Din in the Malay peninsula, China, Japan, and some other 
islands. 

Copper and iron in Siberia, Japan, Hindoostan, Anam, Persia 
Thibet and Turk ey. 

Coal and Petroleum have been discovered in China and Ben¬ 
gal, but the inhabitants have never utilized them to any extent. 

Marble of great beauty exists in Persia, some of which is so- 
transparent that it is used for window lights. 

O 

We know hut comparatively little of the mineral wealth of Asia and' our 
knowledge of its distribution is yet very imperfect. 

ANIMALS. 

21. The animal kingdom is greatly varied. Here are found not 
only beasts , and birds common to Europe, but the rhinoceros* 
elephant, tiger, wild-hog, yak, gazelle, hyena, tapir, wolf, ox* | 
buffalo, goat, sheep, wild ass, monkey, ostrich etc., are natives of 
Asia. Here, also, is the original home of the horse, the camel, 
the pheasant, the bird of Paradise, and the peacock as well as that 
of our common barn-yard fowls. In south-eastern Asia, birds of ! 
the most gorgeous plumage abound. 

MANUFACTURED PRODUCTIONS. 

. 22. The Chinese and Japanese are the principal states engaged 
in manufacturing. They excel in the manufacture of silks laces 
satins, linens, cottons and pottery. 

The Persians make the finest shawls and carpets in the world. 

The Asiatics know but little about the use of machinery. In fact, they 
have a kind of natural repugnance to modern inventions, which makes it very 
difficult to introduce the improved tools and machinery of the more civilized 
nations of Europe and America. However, the skill with which they do their 
work is truly wonderful 





A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPH Y. 


257 

Nearly every article of manufacture is made by hand or with 
the rudest tools. \ er y fne sword blades are made in Persia and 
Japan. 

Calico is said to have been made first at Calicut on the south¬ 
western coast of India, whence it derived its name. 

I he Chinese and Japanese work extensively in carving ivory , 
wood and stone, and in engraving, but without anv design. The 
art of painting was known to the Chinese as early as the ioth 
century, A. D.; they also invented paper, gunpowder, the com¬ 
pass, and other useful articles, 

COMMERCE. 

23. The commerce of Asia is considerable. It is carried on 
chiefly with Great Britain, Japan, East India, and the United 
States. The Asiatics own but few large vessels. The chief sea- 
fort of China is Shanghai. Its commerce amounts to more than 
all the other ports combined. Yokohama is the chief port of 
Japan, and Calcutta ot India; Mecca, Smyrna, Saigon, Rangoon, 
Madras and Bombay are also very important marts. 

The leading exports are raw silk, silk piece goods, tea, sugar, 
mats, matting, Chinavvare, rice, coffee, drugs, spices, aromatics, 
precious stones, etc. 

The imports are opium, cottons, woolens, raw cotton, metals, 
coal and ginseng. 

The following table exhibits the commercial state of the 
principal Asiatic countries: 



COUNTRIES. 

EXPORTS. 1 IMPORTS. 

WITH THE U. S. 
EXPORTS. IMPORTS. 

China. 


fi 185,000,0004 117,000.000 

$ 1N.000.000 .< 

1,600.000 

Japan, 

Persia, . 


2.1,000,000 8;l,0i»O,(K)c 

10 , 000,000 1 l.dOO.OOO 

0.500,000 

1,800,000 

British India, 

. ! 

NATURAL 

379,000,000! 311,000,001 

ADVANTAGES. 

I 15,1.00,0001 

10,000,000 


24. The agricultural advantages have been noted under soil 
and climate . The commercial facilities are excellent along the 
coast, and many of the rivers are navigable; but in this respect it 
is still far surpassed by Europe ami America. Owing to the great 
size of the continent, large portions of the interior are situated so 
far from the sea as to be almost entirely cut off' from the advant¬ 
ages of oceanic commerce. Its lakes are few and for the most 
part are unimportant as highways of trade. 

The interior is ill adapted to manufacturing; (1) for want of 
water power. (2) for want of transporting facilities. There is an 
abundance of minerals, and this would be favorable if other condi¬ 
tions were not wanting. Hence, the manufacturing interests can 
be well developed only along the coast. 

INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. 

25. There are numerous canals, especially in China, \.he impcridl 


















258 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY - . 


canal , 650 miles long, is one of the largest canals in the world. 

In 1S7S there was but one railroad in China and that was purchased by 
the government and destroyed because of blind superstition. Th e popular 
feeling in regard to railways has changed, and there is now a desire for rail¬ 
roads. There are now several short roads in various parts of China and other 
countries of Asia. 

Of late years Japan has made great progress in adopting the 
manners and customs of Europe and America. Railroads, post- 
offices, telegraph lines, improved machinery have all been quite 
recently introduced, and are now found in all parts of the empire. 
Schools of high order have been established and supplied with 
teacfrers from Europe and the United States. The outlook for 
Asia is favorable. 

RACES. 

25. Three races occupy this Grand Division. The Caucasians 
occupy the western part and India. Tne Mongolians the eastern, 
and the Malays the Malay Peninsula. There are many Jews in 
Turkey and Arabia. 


NUMBER OF INHABITANTS. 


COUNTRIES. 

AREA. 

POPULATION. 

Siberia, . 

Tnrkistan,. 

(5,200,000 sq. rn. 
106,000 “ “ 
746,000 “ “ 
968.000 “ “ 
686,(00 “ “ 
279,000 “ “ 
107.000 “ “ 
1,577.000 “ “ 
190.000 “ “ 
198,000 “ “ 
809,010 “ “ 
4,560.000 “ “ 
146,000 “ “ 

11,500.000 
2.780,000 
17,880,000 
8,700,000 
6,000.000 
4.000,000 
850,000 
252.(100,000 
4,000.000 
21,00f,000 
•5.750,000 
484,500,000 
84,888.000 

Turkey,. 

Arabia, “ west,” or “ merchandize traffic,”.... 

Persia,. 

Afghanistan,. 

Belooohistan,.. 

India,. 

Birniah,. 

An am,. 

Siam,. 

Chinese Empire, (“ the middle nation,) ... 

Japan, “root of da v,” or “sunrise nation”. 


OCCUPATION. 


27. The people are chieflv engaged in Agriculture , though 
their mode is rude. 

The Emperor of C hina, to show homage to this pursuit, once each years 
with his own hand plows a furrow. 

Manufacturing is extensively carried on by the Chinese and 
Japanese. The fisheries are important. The pearl fisheries on 
the southeast coast and on the islands are found to be profitable, 
and employ many people. 

A fining is not pursued very extensively, though minerals of all 
kinds are abundant. 

LANGUAGES. 

28. Quite a number of languages and dialects (937) are spoken 
in Asia ; the Chinese language is spoken by one-half the whole 
population. 






































A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 259 

There is the same written language throughout the Chinese Empire, but 
nearly every province speaks its own dialect. There is a character for each 
word, and in reading a Chinese book you begin at the bottom and read to 
ward the top. The language of the Chinese, like their customs, is the same 
as it was 2000 years ago. 

In the English colonies the English languageis extensively used 
and bids fair to become the dominant language of Asia. 

o o 

The Russian tongue is used largely in Siberia. There are, also, 
some other European tongues spoken in various parts, but to a 
limited extent only. 

GOVERNMENT. 

29. There are six independent governments in Asia, all of which 
are absolute monarchies, viz. : China, Japan, Anam, Birmah, 
Siam and Persia. Siberia belongs to Russia. Turkey and Ara¬ 
bia are chiefly subject to Turkey in Europe. 

In some places there are roving tribes under no permanent government, 
end are not recognized among the governments of the world. 

The French own a small tract in the southern part of Farther In¬ 
dia. The remainder of Asia is subject to the English. 

education. 

30. Excepting Japan, but little progress is made in education. 

Throughout the Chinese Empire there is great respect paid to 

letters, but their literature, science and arts have remained fixed 
for ages. Day sehoo/s are common. The government appoints 
boards of examiners, but otherwise does not assist in the education 
of the people. 

In general the masses are very ignorant , and in Western and 
Southern Asia, the condition of the people in most places is de- 
gradinglv low. 

RELIGION. 

31. The religions of Asia may be divided into three classes : 
Budhism in China and Japan, Braluninism in India, and Moham¬ 
medanism in western Asia. There are about seven and one-half 
millions of the Greek Church, four and one-half millions of the 
Roman Catholic, and five hundred thousand Protestants. Nearly 
every educated Chinaman is an atheist. Many missionaries of 
different denominations are laboring in many parts and converting 
great numbers. 

CITIES. 

-22. The large cities of Asia are numerous and many of them 
important. In most cases the cities have narrow, crooked, unpaved 
and undrained stieets. The stench is often horrid and disgusting. 
Nearly all the important cities are enclosed by walls, in which are 
gates guarded by sentinels. 




2G0 


A MANUAL OF GEOOKAl'HV. 


Peking ( 500,000 inhabitants) consists of two cities, twenty-five 
miles in circuit and whose walls are thirty feet high and twenty-five 
feet thick, and have sixteen gates. 

Canton{ 1,500.000 inhabitants)is one of the oldest cities in China. 
I he streets are very narrow, on an average seven to eight feet 
wide. There are no wheel-carriages. It is frequented by a pro¬ 
digious number of boats, sometimes amounting to 100,000 at one 
time. 

Foo Chozu (600,000) has extensive manufactures of cottons and 
porcelain. \ aluable lead mines exist in its vicinity. 

Nankin (“ Mouth of Commerce") is situated 700 miles from the 
mouth of the \ angtse Kiang. Its population is variously esti¬ 
mated from 500,000 to S,ooo,ooo. 

Slicing Hai, a seaport of China, numbering 250,000 inhabitants. 
It is extensively engaged in the manufacture of silks, muslins, 
glassware, paper and artificial flowers. It has three daily and two 
weekly English newspapers. 

Hong Kong (160,000) is a seaport of China. It belongs to the 
British. Other cities of Asia are 


CITIES. 


Ningpo,. 

Kashgar,. 

N ankin,. 

Tientsin,. 

Yerlilo,. 

Yokohama,. 

Osaka,. 

Kioto,. 

Hakoaadi,. 

Nagasaki,. 

Bangkok, . 

Hue, . 

Saigon, . 

MamkTay,. 

Singapore,. 

Calcutta,. 

Bombay,. 

Madras,. 

Delhi,.. 


Lucknow,. 

Cloombo,.. 
Cashmere, 


Benares,.. 
Painia, 

C a bool,. .. 

Kelat,. 

Mecca, ... 

Muscat, 

Jerusalem, 

Smyrna,. . 


POPULATION 


REMARKS. 


120,0)0 Manufactures carved goods, embroidery. Jewelrv, etc. 
TCNDOO. ! t exports brick, tea, silks porcelains, etc. 

500,000 Contains many objects of great interest. 

O;D,O00jIt is a great entrepot for salt. 

780,000 rhe capital of Japan. 

02,00o The seaport of l eddo, 

580,o< 0 It has 1.100 bridges and 1,990'places of worship. 

567,000 Literary center, manufactures porcelain, silks, cutlery 

1 1 O fM"U 1 I kiwi n niwl onn aI/mi . L it ,il. ■ 11 4-4.1 .... . 


112,000 
70. oi 10 
600.000 


Been and spacious harbor; little commerce. 

Extensive trade in pottery. 

Judo-China), Situated in a marshv, but healthy re¬ 
gion. Manufactures tire-crackers. 

100,000 Strongly fortified in the European style. 

00.000 Keguiarly built and strongly fortified. . 

00 , 600 ] 1 1 has palaces, pagodas and convents. 

56,000 “City of the Lion,” an important commercial city. 

892,000 (Indo-Britisli), seat of an immense trade, and capital 
of British-fndia. 

6H.000,Hasa large Hidoolibrary and several scientific schools. 

698,000 Stores and public offices are imposing structures. 

155,000 It contains the palace of the Groat Mogul, the most re¬ 
markable in India, and the celebrated Jainma 
Mosque. 

285,000 Celebrated for its handsome palaces, mosques and 
tom 1 is. 

97,000|Capital; principal commercial emporium of Ceylon. 

51,0001 It is picturesque in situation, and is widely celebrated 
lor its shawls, silks, rose ottar, and floating gardens- 
on the lakes near by. 

175.000,' Phe religious capital of the Hindoos. 

158,000!( ontains fine churches and most]lies. 

60.00*'[Capital of Afghanistan. 

45,0004 'apital of Beloochistan. 

45,000 Supposed to contain the well from which Ha gar ob¬ 
tained the water for Ishmael. 

35,000 ft is visited annually by 100,000 to 200,000 pilgrims. 
If is the birthplace of Mohammed. 

25,000,It is near the Dead sea, and was formerly the capital of 
the Jewish people. 

100,0001 An important town on the Mediterranean^ 














































A MANUAL OF G EGG HA PHY. 


2()l 


Other cities are as follows : 


CITIES. POPULATION. REMARKS. 


Medina, 20.00.' ( nntains the tomb of Mohammed. 

Beyroot,.. 100,000 Celebrated for its remains of antiquity. 

Jvl»i va. . 0.00') < )ne of the Capitals of Turkistan 

Bokhara, . 30,000.lt has335 mosques of great architectural beauty and SO 

colleges. The seat of Mohammedan learning. 
Teherran,. 100,00( Very unhealthy. 

Bushire, .. 20.000 Built of white stone and presents a line appearance. 

Trebizond,. 40,000 An important seaport on the Black sea. 

Er Hiad, . 

Bagdad,. 40,000 Noted for its many slaves and white donkeys. 

Damascus,.. ISO, 000 Beautiful situation. The oldest existing city in the 

Siberia world, founded 2000 years B. C. 

Tashkend,. 80.00 1 

Tobolsk, 17,000'Streets regular, and the citv presents a tine exterior. 

Tiflls.. 70,«<o0 

Kiaehta,. 4,000| 


HISTOR V. 


We are entirely indebted to the Bible for the history of the early ageN of the 
world. The Creation, which consisted in a new arrangement of the seas and 
continents of the earth, with the production of races of animals and vegetables, 
took place many thousand years ago. 

Adam and Eve were the lirst human pair, and from them have sprung all 
the nations of the earth. The descendants of Adam, living in Western Asia, 
and probably in the valley of the Euphrates, increised rapidly, and spread over 
a great extent of country. 

They became very wicked, and in the year 234S, B. ('. they were all de¬ 
stroyed by a Flood, or Deluge, x\ ith the exception of Noah and his family, 
w ho were saved in the ark. The descendants of Noah again peopled the 
vallev of the Euphrates, where they undertook the construction of an immense 
edifice, called the Tower of Babel . 

In the midst of their work, a strange confusion of languages occurred, so 
that the artisans could not understand each other. This led to a dispersion of 
a large portion of the people. Some migrated westward, and settled in Egypt 
and Europe; some proceeded eastward, and established themselves in China 
and other countries, and at last, in Amsrica. Still multitudes rent ained in the 
Euphrates; and here the Empire of Assyria was founded 2221. B. C. Its 
capital was Nineveh , situated on the eastern side of the Tigris. Assyria be¬ 
came an immense empire, and conquered the surrounding countries, including 
the great city of Babylon, on the Euphrates, about 2501-niles south of Nineveh. 
In the vear ^36 B. C., Babylon, Assyria, arid all the surrounding countries, 
were conquered by Cyrus, king of Persia. In the year 331 B. C., Alexander 
of Macedon, conquered Persia and the greater part of Western Asia. 

In a short space of time his empire was broken up, and the various coun¬ 
tries of Western Asia became distributed among different sovereigns. The 
























262 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


Romans got possession of these territories, and their dominions passed to the 
Greek empire. In the sixth and seventh centuries, A. D., most of these were 
wrested from it by the Saracens. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the 
Turks became masters of this portion of the world, which thev retain at the 
present day. The history of northern and eastern Asia is less interesting. 
Nearly one-half of the territory, including Siberia and Tartary, called Scythia 
by the ancients, has continued, from the first dawn of history to the present 
time, to be occupied by various tribes; some of them nomadic, or pastoral, and 
living upon their flocks; and others warlike, occasionally bursting their bound¬ 
aries, and carrying destruction and desolation over the more southern and 
western portions ot the continent. From these regions have issued those ter¬ 
rific conquerors, Zingis Kahn, in the thirteenth century, and Timour, or Tam¬ 
erlane, in the fourteenth century. 

China has continued, from age to age, with less change than any other 
kingdom on the face of the globe. The countries of Fartherther India were 
not known to the ancients, and their modern history only is preserved. In 
general, it may be remarked that not only the human race, but the great re¬ 
ligions, and the various institutions of society, connected with government 
and law, had their beginning in Asia, and have thence been spread over the 
world. 

ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

The term Asia was originally applied only to the western portion of Turkey, 
now called Asia Minor. Ihe whole of eastern and northern Asia was un¬ 
known to the Greeks, who were not aware of the existence of such a country 
as Hindoostan, till the conquest of Persia by Alexander. 


CHINESE EMPIRE. 


MAP EXERCISES. 

Gulfs.—' Tonquin, Pechili. 

Seas.— China, Blue, Japan. 

Straits. —Formosa, Hainan, Corea. 

Islands. —Hainan. Formosa, Loo-Choo. 

Mountain Ranges —Himalaya, Karakorum, Kuenlun, Thian 
Shan, Altai, Nanling,. \ unling, Great Khiiman 

Mountain PEAKs.-Everest Dapsang, NancH Devi, Dhawala- 
gm, Kanchinjmga, Blelucha. 

Lakes— Tungting, Poyang, Lop, Bosting. 

Rivers— Pei Ho, Hoang Ho, Ynngste Kiang, Amoy, Sungari 
Tarim, Sikiang, Brahmaputra. ® ’ 




A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


m 

Cities. Pekin, Nankin, Hangchow, Shanghai, Ningpo, Foo¬ 
chow, Amoy. Canton, Ilong Kong, Lassa, Tientsin. 

Relative Position.— In what direction is Pekir. from Hoilg 
Kong? from Lassa? from Saigon? from the Lco-Choo Islands? 
Nankin from Shanghai? from Amoy? from Pekin? from 
Lassa? 

Travels. —Trace a water route from Pekin to Nankin* to Can¬ 
ton; to Saigon; to Calcutta; to Yokohama. 

Miscellaneous.— What time of day is it now in Pekin? What 
is the difference between the length of this day at Hong 
Kong and Pekin? What part of China is crossed by the 
Tropic of Cancer? By the scale of miles, what is the distance 
from Nankin to Pekin?, to Hong Kong? to Lassa? to Cal- 
cutta? to Kashgar? Measure the distance from Pekin to 
Columbus on the parallel; from Shanghai to New Orleans. 
What is the altitude of the sun to-day, at noon, in Pekin? 


DESCRIPTION. 


POSITION. 

1. China is bounded on the north by Siberia; or. the west by 
Siberia, Turkestan, and India; on the south by India and the 
China sea; and on the cast by the China sea, Blue sea and Japan 
sea. 

LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE. 

2. It extends from iS° to 53 0 north, and from So° to 136° west- 

EXTENT. 

3. The greatest length is 3.3=50 miles, and greatest breadth 2,100. 
Area of the whole empire 4,560,000 square miles. China Proper 
is variously estimated at from 1,298,000 to 200,000,000 square 
miles. It will be seen, that it has as area about seven to eight 
times as large as France, or one-half of Europe. 

CHARACTERISTICS. 

4. This empire is remarkable for its great antiquity, its vast 
extent, and its immense population. It includes China Proper., 
Thibet, Manchooria, Mongolia, Turkistan and Corea. 

COAST. 

5. The coast of China, measuring 2,1500 miles, is broken byfew 
inlets setting deep into its sides; yet it is by no means regular. 
From Hainan to the Yangtse Kiang it is bold and rocky. 



A MANUAL OF GEOGHAl’HY. 


264 


Many fine harbors exist. 4 he coast is frequently visited by storms 
of terrific violence. 

ISLANDS. 

6. Hainan, Formosa, and the Loo-Choo Islands are the largest. 
They are quite populous. 

SURFACE. 

7- Only a little more than one-third of China is fit for cultiva¬ 
tion. Nearly all that extensive region outside of China Proper is 
a desert waste. The whole country slopes gradually from the 
Plateau of Ihihettothe Pacific. The surface is mostly uneven, 
and in many places quite mountainous'. 

MOUNTAINS. 

8. The Himalaya are on the southwestern boundary, and the 
Altai on the north. The Tangling and Peling cross the country 
longitudinally. These ranges throw off' numerous spurs which 
ci oss the country in various directions, and divide it into a number 
of almost isolated sections. 

NATURAL CURIOSITIES. 

9 - Owing to our limited acquaintance with China, we are unable 
to give many natural objects of interest. The lakes, though small, 
are said to abound in some very fine scenery. The inhabitants 
their)selves are almost the greatest curiosities. Their modes are 
so different from ours that they are'a source of no little interest and 
amusement. 

Among the objects- of interest, the “ Great Wall of China ” ranks pre¬ 
eminent. It is the greatest work of defense ever erected by, man, and Avas 
built as a bulwark against the invasions of the Tartars, about 21c B. C. Its 
length is 1,250 miles, 15 to 30 feet high, and a breadth such that six horsemen 
can ride abreast on it._ In some places it is nothing, more than a heap of 
gravel, while in others a solid foundation of granite. 

LAKES. 

10. 4 he piincipal lake in China is the Tungting, 220 miles in 
circumference. Poyang is not far distant from Tunoting, and is 
90 miles long and 20 miles wide. 

There are ma-v lakes in Central China, the principal of which 
are Lof> and Besting, They, are salt, and like all the lakes of 
China, shallow. 

RIVERS. 

11. The rivers of China are in propoition to the size of the 
country. The. Tangste Kiang and the Hoang Ho, or Yellow are 
the principal streams-. Tney have their sources near each other 




A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


265 


in western China, but are far separated in their middle course, 
-after which they again approach each other The Pci Ho and the 
Sikiang are also large rivers and important routes of trade. The 
Hoang Ho is not navigable on account of the shallows. It is sub¬ 
ject to disastrous floods, causing great loss of property and even 
life, and is for this reason called China’s Sorrow.” 

d he 2 angstc Jvictng is a noble river, the most beloved bv the 
Chinese, and is called the “ Son of the Ocean.” 

The Tsicn-tsang is noted for its violent bores, the largest in the 
world. 


They are sometimes thirty feet high, and rush with a velocity of twenty- 
five miles an hour, sweeping everything before them. 

The Sikiang , or Canton river, is an important river in the south, 
and its banks are crowded with shipping. 

The following are the principal rivets of China: 

NAME. [length.; miles of navigation. 


Yangstn Kiang, 
Hoang Ho, 
-Sikiang, 

Pei Jin.. 

A moor. 

Sungari.. 


Seven hundred. 

2,700 Not navigable. 

Three hundred. 

110(1 

1,500 Fifteen hundred. 

800;Deep und easily navigable. 


SOIL. 


12. China Proper has a very fertile soil. The^Gieat Plain,” 
lying between the Great W aif and the Vangste Kiang river and 
stretching trom the sea to 113° east, embracing an erea of 210.000 
square miles, supports a population of 177,000.000, the densest 
population of any region on the globe, of like size. 

Corea , except in the south, is sterile. 

The cast of the empire is barren and supports but a scanty popu¬ 
lation. Less than one-fifteenth of the entire number of people of 
Chinajive outside of China Proper. 


CLIMATE. 

13. Of course, in a country of such vast extent, the climate is 
■various. It is cooler than that of western Europe. Summer be¬ 
gins late and ends late. In the desert regions the climate is change¬ 
able; the heat sometimes becomes intense, and the cold durin^the 
winter, very severe. 

A change of climate has taken place about Pekin within the last two hun¬ 
dred years. There is less rainfall and the country less productive. 

In general the climate may be said to be healthy, but the coun¬ 
try is subject to desolating storms called typhoons. 

These occur during the months of July, August and September, and 
never fail to commit great devastation. The region of Canton suffers most 
severely.. On the whole^ China may be said to have a climate of ex tremes. 






















2m 


a Manual of geography. 


VEGETATION. 


1(1 


14. The vegetable products are those of the temperate zoru 
The tea-plant is native and cultivated to an immense extent, an 
exported to the value of #56,000,000annually. The Camphor-tre^ 
tallow-tree, shrubs producing vainish gums, oranges, cinnamoi 
rhubarb, ginseng, apples, grapes, pomegranates, mangoes, pin 
apples, cereals, kitchen vegetables, etc., are leading production 1 ^ 
Tobacco and the poppy are also raised. 


ANIMALS. 


15. Comparatively little is known of the zoology of Chin 
Most of the wild animals are extirpated. A species of spaniel 
the o'nly dog. Quails, doves and pheasants are common. Tot' 
toises, turtles, lizards, and sharks are plentiful in the souther 
waters. Locusts often commit destructive ravages. The sill 
worm is highly valued and extensively cultivated. 


MANUFACTURES. 


16. The manufactures are ingenious and varied, including silk 


shawls, embroidery, porcelain, lacquered ware, carvings in woo 
shell, ivory, and horn, engravings, cabinet work, bell-casting, et 
Nearly every "thing is made by hand. The Chinese are not a pr< 
gressive people and do not readily take to the better methods 
the Europeans and Americans. Labor is so cheap that they do n< 
feel the need of improved machinery. In the manufacture of si 


leva 


they excel. Everybody wears silk in China, even the poor ha - ' 
at least one suit of it. 


MINERALS. 


17. The northwest of China Proper is the principal miner 
region. Coal exists in enormous quantities. Salt is obtained 


;0r 

iir 

omit 

lid 

trial 


large quantities, while copper, quicksilver, lead, zinc and tin a 
extensively worked. Iron is abundant, and petroleum is found 
exist in several places. Gold is mined in the bed of the Yangt 
Kiang. 


COMMERCE. 


18. The Chinese are a great trading people. They are s lire which, 
methodical and enterprising, and not over scrupulous in sm, lilt t. 
dealings. The inland commerce is immense. The exports are te ^ oI 
raw silk, and silk goods, straw goods, mats, fans, parasols, pore? 
lain and lacquered ware, rattan, fire crackers, trinkets, etc. 

The imports are opium, longcloths, ginseng, tin, lead, iron, p 


troleum, and the liki 


The whole value of imports in 1S81 was $136,000,000 and the expo 
$109,000,000. 


- Iota 






A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


2(o 

One thirl of the commerce is carried on with Great Britain. 
:a ant ^ silk make up three-foui ths of the exports, while- opium 
d cotton goods constitute two-thirds of the imports. 

INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. 

19. There are scarcely any roads in China and wheel-carri¬ 
es are rare. Nearly all the merchandize is carried on the backs 
mules or by ‘‘coolies. ’ The canals are numerous, but ii* very 
pei feet condition. Ihe “ Gra?id Canal ,” the largest irj the 
>rld, is 650 miles long, but is in a sad state of repair, so that in 
me places it cannot be used. The Chinese government refused 
open the country to railroads and telegraphs , and destroyed. in 
/S, the hist and only railroad it ever had. Very few steamboats 
vigate the rivers, and these under restrictions. This people 
mm to have a natural abhorrence to all modern improvements* 
wever, lately there seems to be a change of feeling on this point! 
.1 their implements are of the rudest kind. 


INHABITANTS. 

r°- The Chinese, or “ Sons of Han,” as they call themselves,, 
long to the Mongolian race. Thev are on an average c feet 1 
dies tall. " * > * 

! In their habits they are filthy, but industrious, skillful, polite, and provi- 
lt. They are corvardly and of low morals, though not excitable nor re- 
lgeful, yet when they once become aroused, they are exceedingly crueL 
ey are vain and love their country with considerable devotion. 

On the approach of cold weather the Chinaman kindles no fire in his. 
elling, but puts on additional.cfothing. lie looks upon cold water with 
>mination, either as a beverage or for washing. “ The costume of the wo- 
n differs but little from that of the men, and their shoes are the most re- 
rkable part of their toilet.” The female infant’s feet are compressed and 
allowed to grow, so that the shoes of an adult woman measures 3 C inches 
length. 

POPULATION. 

21. The following is the population of the divisions of the em- 
*e: 


ina Proper, 
nchooria, . . 

ibet,. . 

>ngolia,. 

rea,. 

rkestan, ... 


405,300,00a 
12 . 000^000 
f),000^XK) 
2 t 6 oc^ooo 
8,500.000 
600,000 


Total population of the empire, 


435,000,000 


OCCUPATION. 

22. Agriculture is held in higher estimation than in any othtr 
rt of the world. 













A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


t268 

. '< 

On the first day of each year the emperor, with his officers, repairs to ■] 
"Sacred Field,” and plows a furrow with his own hand; the princes and i r 
isters follow his example. A like solemnity is performed by every gove „ 
-of the provinces. h 

Much of the land is cultivated with the spade, and irrigatic, c 
successfully carried on. Manufacturing is diligently pursued 
•commerce is active. Sixteen ports are open to foreign trade. e 
Minin*, considering the mineral wealth, is neglected, and T 
vast stores remain hidden in the earth. Oyster and the p el 
fisheries are profitable. ie 

GOVERNMENT. 

23. The government is despotic , the emperor being assistey 
-ji privv council. The Icizvs are rigid, but mildly administer 
China Proper is divided into eighteen provinces, each of whic 1! 
presided over by a governor. 1 he executive system is based c 
-competitive examinations, intended to silt out ot the millions 1 
•educated, the best for the official positions. These examinatj, 
21 re held once every three years. 1 Ji 


EDUCATION. 


lit 

24. Education is regarded as the highroad to official emp < 
inent, to rank, wealth, and influence, and is eagerly sought b t 
classes. The government provides state examinations, but < 
•not otherwise assist in the support of the schools. 

The Chinese have 110 alphabet, but a distinct character for every v 
In reading a Chinese book you begin at the bottom instead of the top, am /, 
pupils in studying read at the top of their voices. '. ' * ':p 

The quality of their education is very inferior to that of Em¬ 
in mathematics they are deficient, but have made some prog j, 
since their acquaintance with European mathematical wc 
Their astronomy is the astrology of the ancients. Their geogrP 
deal knowledge is confined mainly to their own country. In art , 1 
workmanship they deiv comparison with Christian art, but t 11 
-designs are the most grotesque and incongruous. Their mus 
painfully discordant to cultivated ears. They have many kino 
musical instruments, but have no knowledge of rhythm, mel 
or harmony. “Their singing is with the falsetto voice, betw€ 1 
squeal and a scream.” 

Those who fail to pass the examinations for the higher offices are 
ployed as school teachers, notaries, clerks. All the people learn to read 
same language, but the dialects are so numerous and difficult that, in coi ~ 
nation, the people of one province cannot understand those of any 1 • 
province. i 

RELIGION. 


The religion of Confucius, which is a mere systen 1 



269 * 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


Idly morality, is adopted by the court. JBudhism , called the 
;ion ot Fo, is the faith of the masses. 

4 The worship of ancestors is a remarkable and prominent feature of 
ese social life.” The people generally have no fear of death, and suicide* 
ommon. They never refer to death in direct terms, but paraphrase by 
expressions as the person 44 exists no more,” “ he has saluted the age,” 
2nded to the skv.” 

The Chinese philosophy is atheistical, and deduces the development of the 
T se from one unintelligent and will-less principle \ Hence all educated 
ese are atheists, at least, theoretically. 


CUSTOMS. 

A Chinamen, when he meets you, t dees olY his shoes instead 
is hat; he shakes his own hands, not his friend’s. He wear* 
overing on his head, and all the hair^pf his head is shaven off, 
tpt a bunch on the top, which is raided into the ‘ 4 pig tail.” 

le officials are divided into ranks, and each rank is distin-r- 
hed by the button on the cap. 

key educate the boys, but not the girls. The place of honor is 
ke left hand. They eat with two sticks instead of knives and 
b. They use but little tobacco , but are addicted to the opium 
t. White is the color of mourning, black that of gayety. 


INVENTIONS, 

j. The Chinese have given many important inventions to the 
d. The art of paper-making was known in the first century. 
nting from wooden blocks was invented in the seventh cen- 
The compass has been in use among them for several thou- 
years. 

)xcept the telegraph and the steam engine, seaicely anv great modem- 
lion has been made which has not been in use among them for many 
ries # 


CITIES. 


These are numerous, and many of them quite large. All 
its concerning the number of inhabitants are only approxi- 
as no census af these cities is ever taken, or, at least, for- 
ers do not get tlie exact figures : 

NAMES. POPULATION. I NAME*. j POPULATION. 


Tl._ 

how,. 

[ow,. 

rhni, 

Kong, 

o,. 


500.000;Kashgar, .. i 70,000 

1,500,000 Nankin,.. .. 50o,o<hi • 

000,000,Tientsin,. 9:10.000 

From SOO.OOOjTakow,. 235,000 ■ 

to s.000,0001 

250.000 Amoy,.. *8,»-00 * 

160,000 singtan,... . 1,000 000 * 

120,000|Victoria, 102.00ft > 

























::270 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


HISTORY. ■ j' 

The Chinese records go back several thousand years before the I 
Christ ion era. These are fabulous; but there is no doubt that* 
China the oldest existing dominion on the face of the globe. 
.After several dynasties had oassed away Confucius , the celebiated 
moralist, philosopher, and lawgiver, was boYn, 549 B. C. In the 
year 215 B. C., the Great Wall was built, as a defense against 
the Tartars. In 1203, Zingis Khan conquerd the northern proV| 
mces. Kublai Kahn\ his grandson, subjugated the country in I2S«| 
The Tartars were driven out in 1368. 4 

In 1664, the Mantchoo Tartars conquored the country, and estab- 
IIshed the present line of . sovereigns, which has insured peace be¬ 
tween China and its northern provinces. King Long , an emperor 
distinguished for his intelligence, died in 1799. In 1840, a war 
broke out between Great Britain and China, in consequence of 
the destruction, by the Chinese, of a large quantity of opium, which 
was about to be smuggled into Canton. The Chinese were de- j 
ieated in numerous engagements, and were compelled to pay, 
$ 21 , 000 , 000 , and to open to foreign trade, besides the port of Can- [ 
rton —Amoy, Foo Chow, Ningpo, and Shanghai—ceding, also, the 
Island *of Hong Kong to the English in perpetuity. The present 
‘emperor is Kwong Shu. He was born in 1871, and became era- ^ 
peror, January 12, 1 S75* 

\ ‘ ( I I 

AFRICA. I 


MAP EXERCISES. 

I 

•-Capes. —Bon, Verde, Good Hope, Guardafui, Agulhas, Corrientej, j 
Frk), Negro, Lopez, St. Paul, Three Points, Palmas, Blanco, 
Bojdaor, Nun, Amber, S. Marie. 

Cxjlfs and Bays. —Cabez, Sidra, Suez, Aden, False, Table, Wall 
fish, Biafra, Benin, Delagoa, Algoa. 

Moltntain Ranges.— Atlas, Crystal, Kong, Lupata, Nieuweveld, 
Dragon, Matoppo, Mosamba, Lokinga, Blue. 

Mountain Peaks. — Cameroon, Kilimanjaro, Kenia, Milstiii. 
Compas, Mfumbira. 

Islands. —Madagascar, Amiranto, Comoro, Seychelle, Masca-j 
r<ene, Reunion, Mauritius, Zanzibar, St. Helena, Ascension,! 
Annobon, St. Thomas, Princes, Fernando Po, SherboiK 
Canary, Verde, Madeira, Azores, Socotra. 3 

Rivers.— Nile, Congo, Niger, Senegal, Gambia, Orange, Swakop 
Nourse, Limpopo, Gr. Fish, Coanza, Benue, Blue Nile, Ga¬ 
zelle, Atbara, Juba, Zambeze, Haines, Sobat, Lukuga, ShariJ 
^Shelif, Molopo. 














A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


271 


akes. Albert, Victoria, Tanganyika. Bangweola, Tsad, Nyassa, 
Ngami, Dilolo, Tunis, Sankorro. Zana, Iro, Shirwa. 
o\v\s.—Cairo, Alexandria, Thebes, Tunis, Suez, Morocco, Tri¬ 
poli, Fez, Cento, Algiers, Oran, Constantine, Berbera, Gon- 
dar, Cape Town, Petermaritzburg, Tananarivo, Zanzibar, 
Monrovia, Freetown, Port Natal, Mozambique, Luka, Cumas- 
sie, Abomey, Sokoto, Murzuk, Timbuktu, Abesher, Susa, Lo- 
ango, Mossamedes, St. Paul de Loanda, Pretoria, Bethany, 
Gambia, Senegal, Grahams Town, Sego. 

ountries.— Egypt, Nubia, Darfur, Kordofan, Zanguebar, Moz¬ 
ambique, Madagascar, Abyssinia, Somali, Adamaua, Upper 
Guinea, Dower Guinea, Cape Colony, Liberia, Ashantee, Si¬ 
erra Leon, Senegambia, Morocco, Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli, 
Masina, Sokoto, Waday, Kanem, Bambarra, Dahomey, Lo- 
ango, Congo, Benguela, Mossamedes. Damaras, Ovampos, 
Namaquas, Orange River, Republic, Transvaal, CafHr, Land, 
Zulu Land, Sofaia, Fezzen, Air, Moors, Tibesti, Adjan, Ma- 
kololo. 

elative Position.— In what direction is Morocco from Al¬ 
giers.’' from Cairo? from Cumassie? from Cape Town? from 
Zanzibar? from St. Helena? from Kuka? 
ravels.— On what waters would a vessel sail in going from 
Cairo to Algiers? to Cape Town? to Suez? to Berbera? to Se¬ 
bastopol? From Alexandria to New York? to Vera Cruz? to 
Hull? What countries would you cross in traveling by land 
from Nubia to Abomey? to Grahams Town? to Morocco? 
from Gondar to Sego? to Tunis? Cape of Good Hope? to 
Mozambique? 

[iscellaneous.— What is the time at Cario when it is noon at 
Columbus, Ohio? the time at Morocco? at Cape Town? 
What season at Cape Colonj ? at Algiers? at Timbuktu? At 
what place in Africa does the longest day occur? The short¬ 
est? What places in Africa have no latitude? Where is the 
sun perpendicular to-day at noon? What divisions of Africa 
are crossed by the 15 0 east longitude? What bv the 35 0 ? 

DESCRIPTION. 


GENERAL STATEMENT. 

1. Africa is remarkable for its burning climate, its singular an- 
lals, and its peculiar race of inhabitants. 

POSITION. 

2. (1) Africa is bounded on the north by the Mediterranean 
;a; on the east by the Isthmus of Sues, Red sea, and the Indian 




272 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


ocean; on the south by the Indian and Atlantic oceans, and on the* 
west by the Atlantic ocean. (2) It lies between 37 0 20 miyi. 
north and 35 0 south, and between 51 0 22 min. east, and 17 0 $3: 
min. west longtitude. 

EXTENT. 


3. Its greatest length is 5,000 miles, and greatest breadth 4,Soo 
miles. Area, 11.557,000 square miles. 


Distance from Algiers to Cairo. 1,900 m 

Murzuk,. 900 

“ Greece,. . 1 >050 

Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb,. 3,000 

Morroco,. 900 

“ Paris. .• • 82 s 


les- 


“ “ Madrid,. 

“ “ London,. 

“ “ St. Petersburg, 

Sicily “ Africa,. 

Africa “ Spain,. 


45 ° 

1,050 

2,100 

3 °° 

15 


COAST. 

4. Africa consists of a vast peninsula, with no bays setting 
deep into its sides, and no rivers navigable to anv great extent. 
For these reasons it has been less accessible to discovery than 
other regions of the world, and hence huge poitions of its territory 
remain unexplored* The coast line measures 16,000 miles; about 
one mile of coast to every 710 miles of continental area. There 
are are but few good harbors. 

From Cape Negrpto the Orange river, a distance 01*900 miles, not a single 
stream of fresh water empties into the sea. The coast here is low and desert,, 
while in and about Cape Colonv it is bold and rocky. 


CAPES. 

5. The extreme capes of Africa are Bon on the north, Guarda- 
fui on the east, Agulhas on tne south, and Verde on the west; the 
latter is so called from rich green covering of gigantic baobab 
trees. Other capes are Blanco, Bojador, Nun, Lopez, Delagoa,. 
Guardafui, etc. 

The Cape of Good Hope was discovered in the search of a passage by sea 
to India. It was so called by the first discoverer, who thought it the southern 
point of Africa, and thus gave “ Good Hope” of reaching India by sea. 

GULFS AND BAYS 

6. The loading gulfs and bays are Cabez, and Sidra on the 
north, tributary to the Mediterranean, etc. 

SEAS. 

7. Bu t three seas wash the shores of Africa. Mediterranean 
on the north, Red and Arabian on the northeast. 
















A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


• 273 


CHANNELS AND STRAITS. 

V 

S. The Strait of Gibraltar separates Morocco from Spain, and 
connects the Atlantic with the Mediterranean; it is fifteen miles 
wide. 

The Strait of Bab-cU Mandeb (“The Gate of Tears”) derived i-ts 
name from its dangerous navigation. It separates Abyssinia from 
Arabia, and is twenty miles wide. Mozambique channel separating 
the island of the same name from the continent, is 250 to 600 miles 
wide, and 1,000 miles long. 

ISLANDS. 


9. There are several islands belonging to Africa, some ofwhich 
are very fertile. Most of them have warm climates and yield 
tropical productions. 

(2) Gerba.—On the coast of Tripoli is the small island of Gerba. 

which is noted for its monument of Christian Skulls , gathered 

? from a battle-field in the vicinity, and heaped upon a rock, where 

J' it has remained lor several centuries. It serves to keep alive that 

hatred which the Mohammedans have been accustomed to indulge 
i 0 
toward Christians. 

( 3) Azores.—Nine in number, are about 900 miles west of Port- 
v ugal and present a very rugged aspect. 

They produce wines and brandy, oranges, lemons, salt pork, beef- There 
;le are few good harbors. Population, 27.000. 

(4) Cape Verd “Green”:—Consist of 15 principal with some 
smaller islands; they contain the celebrated volcano Togo, 9,150 feet 
high. 

There are but few trees, and there is great scarcity of water. The products 
11 are fruits, maize, beans, coffee, sugar, tobacco, red coral, salt, oil-nuts, cattle, 
" pigs, goats, asses, fowls, and amber. Area i,6So square miles. Population 

ll 91.000. 

* ( 5 ) Canary “Happy Islands”:—Belong to Spain and are situ¬ 

ated 60 miles from the coast; they consist of 7 principal islands 
7 and are singular in formation and productions. The hot winds 
from the continent often destroy the vegetation and induce disease. 


•hi 


The Canary bird is a native of these islands. The chief productions are 
cochineaf oil. grain, silk, wine, raisins, potatoes, sugar-cane, and fruits. Com- 
mere* is carried on chiefly with the United States and England. Area 2,980. 
Population, 285,000. 


(6) St. Helena , which is crowned by a lofty rock, belongs to 
the British, and was the prison of Napoleon Bonaparte till his 
.]i death, in 1821. 


It is 700 miles from Ascension; 1,400 miles from Africa; and 2,000 mile* 
from Brazil. 








271 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


Ascension , to the north-west of St. Helena, is a small, barren 
island, with a fine harbor, and abounding in fish and sea-fowl. 

This and St. Helena are the resort of ships traversing the seas. 

(7) Mauritius, .or the Isle of France , belongs to England, and 
is noted for a lofty mountain, crowned by a rocky peak, called 
Peter Bette's Mountain. 

It is much subject to devastating storms. Bourbon belongs to France, 
•and is famous for its Volcano , whose burning fires serve to light the mariner 
■on his way, Socotra belongs to Keshin , an Arabian state, and is noted for its 
trade In aloes. Area :i,00© square miles. Population 5,000. Comoro islands 
are noted for their cdttle and fish. 

(8) Madagascar , in the Indian Ocean, twice as large as Great 
Britain, coutainmg.zzSuiOOO square miles, has a fine soil and a num¬ 
erous population. Silk-worms are reared, and honey and wax 
are produced in great .abundance in the woods. The mountains 
supply gold, .silver, lead, and iron. 

The inhabitants manufacture iron utensils, and work in gold and silver ar¬ 
ticles. They-are divided into several tribes, all of which are barbarians. This 
island was -known to the Arabs in the thirteenth century. In 1642, the French 
settled upon .it. and made several attempts to colonize it, but without success. 
European, missionaries were [protected by one their late kings, but in 1835, 
■Christianity was prohibited ; and in 1S45, all Europeans were expelled. 

SURFACE. 

xo. A general description of Africa must be imperfect owing 
to its great size and consequent diversity. 

Africa .has mountain ranges near its coast almost completely en¬ 
closing its interior. It is sometimes likened to a huge trough, the 
to o unt; 1 in s .for m i n g its s kle s. 

'The northern fart .contains the plateaus of Hamada and Barca. 

The interior is ’supposed to be moderately elevated, as many of 
the most important rivers take their rise in about the same region. 

The southern J>art is a vast table land sloping gently towards 
the north. * 

MOUNTAIN RANGES. 

11. The Atlas Mountains are in North-Western Africa, trend¬ 
ing thiough the Barbary States from north-east to south-west. 

The name Atlas was derived from Atlas, King of Mauritania, and one of 
the gods of the ancients. He is said to have been the first who taught that 
heaven Ihad the form of a globe. Ovid relates that Perseus having been re¬ 
fused -shelter by Atlas, changed him, by means of the head of Medusa, into a 
mountaijn on which rested the firmament. 



A MANUAL OK GEOGRAPHY. 


275 


The Atlas mountains are 1,500 miles long and 4,000 feet high; 
the Kong mountains have an average elevation of 2.500 feet; the 
Snoity, 10,000 feet. 

MOUNTAIN PEAKS. 


12. The folio wing are the highest peaks: 


NAMES. 

HEIGHT. 

NAMES. 

HEIGHT. 

Milstin,... 

11.400 feet 
20.000 “ 

'I'm 1 ilt» M mi vita i n 

3,600 feet 
0.150 “ 
12.200 “ 
10,240 “ 

Kilimanjaro, . 

Vole Logo, 

Kenia. 

Teneriffe, . 

Peak of Pico,. 

7,603 “ 

Spitz Kop.... 


PLAINS, PLATEAUS, ETC. 

13. The Highlands of Abyssinia are from 6,000 to S,000 ft. high. 
The Plateaus of Barca and Hamada are in the northern part. 



The Great Karroo Plains in Cape Colony are vast areas “an¬ 
nually covered with a rich vegetation and pastured by numerous 
herds, but when the dry season comes they are arid deserts.” 

The Sahara is the most extensive desert region on the <>lobe. 

O o 

This sea of sand stretches from the Atlantic, nearly to the shores 
•of the Red Sea. 

It consists of a table-land raised a little above the level of the sea, covered 
with moving sand, and here and there, containing some rocky heights and 
valleys where water collects, and nourishes a few thorny shrubs, ferns, and 
grasses. The desert, however, has some fertile spots called oases ; the largest 
is Fczzatt. The desert is crossed by companies called caravans , the people 
being generally mounted on camels. This animal, sometimes called the 
“ Ship of the Desert is able to bear the burning heat of these regions. It 
•can drink water enough to last several days, and the soles of its feet are like a 
cushion just adapted to traveling over hard stony ground. 

Travelers in the desert are often be»et by predatory tribes, and some¬ 
times are overwhelmed by drifting sand. 

Parts of the Sahara are from 80 to 340 feet below the sea-level. It is 
supposed to have been, at some time, in part, covered by the sea. Since these 
low places approach so near the sea, one on the northern part, and another 
in the western, there is a project to tunnel into the sea and let in the water, 
and so convert these low places into inland seas. It is claimed that in this 
way the rain-fall would be increased and the remainder of the Sahara become 
a fruitful country. 

A portion of Abyssinia is also about 570 feet below the sea-level. 
The Sahara is about 3.000 miles long by 1,000 wide and embraces 
nearly 3,000,000 square miles; in other words it is about three 
times as large as the Mediterranean. 

o 






















276 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


OBJECTS OF INTEREST. 

14. Africa is so imperfectly known that a satisfactory descrip¬ 
tion of its curiosities can not be given. 

The Victoria Falls of the Zambeze river are about 400 feet high. 
During the dry season but little water falls over the precipice, but 
when the river is full it is one of the most magnificent cataracts 
known. 

“ After a descent of a few feet, the water breaks into a white mass like a 
sheet of driven snow, and sends up columns of vapor Soo feet above the brink 
of the falls,” in which are seen the most beautiful colors the eye can behold. 

Egypt is a very inteiesting country to the historian and the 
traveler. It abounds in ruins of every description, and of the most 
stupendous proportions. 

Other portions of Africa are of interest to the student of nature, 
but the climate is so unhealthy that few will risk their lives in at¬ 
tempting to explore this great continent, and to reveal its mysteries 
and curiosities to the world. 

LAKES. 

► 

15. The lakes of Africa are for the most part unimportant. 
They are generally shallow and many during the dry season be¬ 
come mere stagnant pools of water, breeding disease, or they dry 
up entirely. 

Some of them, as Nyassa , Zana , and Albert are very deep; the 
former is subject to sudden and violent storms which lash its 
waters to fearful heights. 

Fish and other animals exist in most of them. The lakes of the 
barbary States are so salt that during the summer when they are 
nearly dry they leave incrustations of salt along their shores. 

The following list includes the important lakes of Africa: 


LAKES. 

LENGTH. 

BREADTH 

j AREA. 

height. 

Triad,. 

150 


1 1A /ViO 

1,150 

3,000 

2,700 

Victoria,. 

20(i 

1ZU 

10,000 
to 50,000 

Albert,. 

350 

50 

30,000 

28,000 

Ngatni,... 

350 

an 

20 to GO 

13,000 

3,520 

Tanganyika,. 

ou 

480 

150 

60 

zo 

10 00 

3,200 

111 AA 

3.300 

2,800 

4,000 

Bangweola,. 

Zana, or Dembea,. 

iu ivi uy 

70 

25 

J I,» 00 
9,000 
J,300| 


RIVERS. 

16. The rivers of Africa like her lakes are for the most part 
commercially unimportant; they are broad and shallow streams 
and thus afford little navigation. The most important river is the 
Nile, lemaikable for its annual overflow which brings a great deal 



























A .MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


277 


of rich soil clown from its upper course and distributes it over the 
lower country through which it flows and this fertile valley is thus 
called the “Gi*ft of the Nile.” 

This remarkable river has not a single tributary in the last 1,500 miles of 
its course, and gradually diminishes in size as it approaches the sea. Its delta 
has an area of more than 11,000 square miles. 

The Congo is a vast river emptying its muddy waters into the 
Atlantic. The Zambeze is noted for its “falls.” The Nijcr loses 
much of its water by sinking into the sand near its mouth. 


RIVERS. 

hENOTH. 

AREA OF BASIN 

REMARKS 

Nile,.. 

4,000 

1,425,000 

Eleven mouths; Numerous cataracts in its up- 

Congo. . 

Senegal. 

3,000 

1,000 


per course. 

1.400 miles of navigation ; 35 cataracts. 
Navigable 450 miles for flat-bottomed boats. 

Senegambia, 

1,000 


Navigable 150 miles. Mouth four miles wide. 

**ger,. 

3,000 


22 mouths; 1,800 miles of navigation when full 

Zambeze. 

1,800 


ot water. 

\fiords little navigation ; bars across its mouth. 

Limpopo,. ... 
Orange,. 

1,150 

410,00 

Vessels of of 200 tons can ascend 00 miles. 

Flows through a desert country. 


SOIL. 

17* The soil is various; vast tracts consist of barren sands. 
The parts along the shores except along the coast of Sahara are 
very fertile. The interior is but little known, but so far as known 
it consists of extensive sterile regions alternating with fertile 
valleys. 

The soil along the borders of the Great Desert is not well 
adapted to farming as it is too drv; the date palm flourishes here 
best as it requires a dry sandy soil. 

CLIMATE. 

18. Owing to the position of Africa, the greater part of it lying 
in the Torrid zone, and to the extent of its arid plains, its climate 
is excessive , and the temperature higher than in any other part of 
the world. 

In the deserts of the Sahara and Nubia, the heat is the most op¬ 
pressive that can be imagined. 

The Arabs say, “The soil is like fire and the wind like a flame;” yet, while 
the temperature sometimes rises to 150° Fah. during the day, it sinks so rap¬ 
idly during the night that it freezes. This is caused by the dryness of the air, 
allowing radiation to go on very rapidly during the night, and heating during 
the day. 

The hot winds from the Sahara are called Simoons and are very 
destructive. 

In the equatorial regions , it rains for six months almost inces¬ 
santly; during the rest of the year it is dry. 























278 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


In some places there are two rainy seasons and two dry seasons 
in one year. 

The greatest annual rai 
The hot -winds of the Sahara rising draw in the moist wind's from the sea r , 
whose vapors are condensed by the mountains along the coast and clouds drop 
their moisture in copious showers. 

Along the western coast of Africa within the tropics and in 
many other places the climate is very unhealthy, -especially to 
white men. 

The hottest part of Africa extends in a broad belt from the lower part ot 
the Red sea to the Gulf of Guinea. It has an average temperature of eighty- 
one degrees. The Sahara has an average temperature of seventy-nine de¬ 
grees; Cape Colony, sixty-eight degrees. 

VEGETABLE PRODUCTIONS. 

.19. Africa presents the most striking contrasts in its vegeta¬ 
tion. A great part of its surface consists ot arid deserts; but in 
the vicinity of these, there are countries covered wjth the richest 
verdure. Wherever the land is watered, vegetation is character¬ 
ized by the utmost Vigor and magnificence. 

The Barbary States are covered with groves of oranges and 
olives, with fields of maize, cotton, wheat, sugar-cane, and the 
grape; with forests of evergreens, oak, p’nes, cork-trees, cypresses, 
arbutus, and myrtle. 

Egypt produces cotton, acacia, onions, fruits, tamarind, sugar, 
wheat, rice, and corn. 

The coffee tree gl ows in Abyssinia, Liberia, and other places. 

Cotton and indigo grow wild in Soudan. 

Lemons and citrons grow in nearly all parts. 

The most dense forests imaginable cover Central Africa. 

In South Africa many of the grains of the temperate zones 
flourish. 

North-East Africa produces frankincense, myrrh, cinnamon, 
and other spices. | 

MINERALS. 

20. The chief minerals of Africa so far as known, are gold, 
iron, copper, diamonds, salt, granite, limestone, and sandstone. 

Gold seems most abundant in South Africa; diamonds along 
the Orange river. 

MANUFACTURES. 

21. The manufactures of Africa are unimportant. They con¬ 
sist of morocco leather, oils, cotton and silk goods, and a few 
rude implements of war and agriculture. 


nfall occurs at Sierra Leone, 1*89.6 inches. 















A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


27k 


COMMERCE. 

22. Owing to its barbarous state, its want ot deep inlets and 
navigable lakes and rivers, and its unhealthy climate. Africa is 
far behind the other grand divisions in the amount and value of 
its commerce. 

The chief articles of export are gold, ivory, hides, morocco leath¬ 
er, dates, palm-oil, gums, wax, ostrich feathers, spices, slaves, etc. 

About 10,000 slaves are annually sent from Lake Tsad to the coast of the- 
Mediterranean. The whole route is strewn with the skeletons of those who 
have perished on the way. 

The imports are various articles, chiefly from Europe and Amer¬ 
ica: cloth, trinkets, and ornaments, which' are bartered to the 
natives. 

NATURAL ADVANTA&ES> 

23. The pupil should here be required to give the natural- advantages of 
Africa, according to preceding models. 

INTERN A L IM P ROVEM E N TS-. 

24. Africa is lacking in internal improvements.. There are a 
few railroads built by Europeans. Several important lines of 
railway have been proposed which when completed wiJl open 
vast territory of this “Dark Continent." 

Egypt is well supplied with a net work of railroad's managed 
by the government. 

Public roads and bridges , such as are known in out country 
and in Europe are not known here. 

The Suez canal , connecting the Mediterranean and Red seas, was built 
chiedv by the French, but is now under the control of the English. It was 
formally opened November 17, 1S69. It is 100 miles long, 325 feet wide at 
the top and 75 at the bottom, and 26 feet deep; cost about .$55,000,000. There 
are numerous smaller canals in Egypt used tor irrigating the Lind. 


ANIMALS. 

25. Africa is remarkable for the multitude and variety of its 
animals. The giraffe, the tallest of animals; the hippopotamus, an 
enormous beast resembling the hog; the chimpanzee, a large ape, 
formed more like aman than any other creature; the zebra and quag- 
ga, beautifully striped and resembling the horse; the gnu, or 
horned horse are all peculiar to Africa. 

This country also, in company with Asia, has troops of elephants, 
herds of wild deer, the rhinoceros, hyena, ostrich, crocodile, and 
serpents of monstrous size. 




28 0 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


The termites or white ants swarm in the tropical regions, and build their 
hills to the height of twelve feet; the interior displaying bridges, archways, 
and passages most ingeniously contrived. 

The social weaver , a small kind of bird, associate together, and build a 
common nest on a tree, shaped like, an umbrella, in which several hundred 
live together. 

The ostrich is found along the desert and open plains. The 
guinea-fowl is indigenous to Western Africa. 

Besides these, there are thousands of insects in every quarter, among 
which are the locust, a scourge of this continent from time immemorial, and the 
tsetse, a fly about as large as, a common house-fly, whose bite is fatal to horses 
and cattle, but harmless to man; it is found in South Africa. Huge serpents 
infest all parts and are the dread of the inhabitants. 


POPULATION. 

"6.' The inhabitants consist chiefly of Adoors r who occupy the 
13 a i baiy States; Arabs, who inhabit the Great Desert and its 
borders; negroes , who are spread over the middle and southern 
portions;^ Cajfirs and mixed races , who occupy the south-eastern 
border. There are also many tribes scattered, here and there which 
partake more or less of these several races. The English occupy 
the extreme southern part, and many French live in Algeria. 


NUMBER OF INHABITANTS. 

27. So little is known of Africa thatbarely an approximate esti¬ 
mate can be made as to the number of inhabitants. 

The following table gives the population of some of the princi¬ 
pal states. (From the Eclectic No. 3.) p nci 


NAMES. 

j AKEA. 

Morocco,. 


Algeria,. . 

200,000 

250,000 

Tripoli and Fezzan,. 

40.000 

, T , , Dominion 0/ the Khedive. 

fjgypt,. 

I Nubia,. . 

I Darfur,. . 

t Kordofan,. . 

The Sahara,.. . 

o44,000 

113,000 

334,0 0 
106,000 
58,000 
2.436.00U 

Liberia,.. .. 

Abyssinia,. .... 

Cape Colo r>y,. . 

Natal,.. . 

Orange River Republic, . 

Transvaal, . 

1,000,000 

10,000 

158,000 

224,000 

18,000 

42,000 

Other, colonies in South Africa, . 

' 114,000 

Remainder of General Division, 

oz,uuu 

p&al,. 

OjoZJjvUU 


* 11 , 557 , 000 ! 


NO. OF 

INHABITANTS. 


6 , 000 , 000 . 

2,146,000 

2,000.000 

1,200,000 

5,252,000 

1,000,000 

5.000,000 

2,170,000 

4,000,000 

51,400,000 

718,000 

3,500,000 

718.008 

290,000 

57,000 

275,000 

221,000 

110,052,000 


206,000,000 












































A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


281 


OCCUPATION. 

2S. The chief occupation in the more civilized portions are 
farming, hunting ostriches, selecting ivory. The great bulk of the 
inhabitants are savages and have no useful pursuits. The leading 
pm suits ot the inhabitants ot Cape Colony, are stock-raising and 
ostrich-farming. 

O 

LANGUAGE. 

29. Our ignorance ot this “Dark Continent” renders it impossi¬ 
ble to give a collect account of the language. Where settled by 
Europeans, European languages are used. It is estimated that not 
less than 150 different languages are spoken in Africa. 

GOVERNMENT. 

30. Nearly all the governments are despotic. 

A large retinue ot soldiers always attend the despot, and in Morocco and 
other countries, every one whom the despot meets mu3t fall with his face to 
to the earth till the procession has passed. 

Under the benign influence of Christanity. the social condition 
of the inhabitants is improving. 

EDUCATION. 

31. A few schools exist in the foreign settlements. Among the 
natives there is the greatest ignorance, degradation and vice. 

RELIGION. 

32. In northern Africa the people are chiefly Mohammedans, 
but in many places their religion is mixed with the pagan worship. 

The vast majority are in a condition of the darkest heathenism. 
Superstition reigns supreme and women are treated as slaves. 

POLITICAL DIVISIONS. 

33. The political div isions are given in the map exercises to which refer. 

# 

FOREIGN POSSESSIONS. 

34. Algeria belongs to France. the French have also possess¬ 
ions on the Senegal and Gambia river. The British have settle¬ 
ments in Cape Colony, Sierra Leone, Natal and the Gold Coast. 
The Canary islands, Fernando Po. Annobon belong to Spain. 
The Portuguese possessions are on the east coast of Mozambique, 
Angola, and Benguela. 






282 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


CHIEF TOWNS. 

^5. The cities of Africa are ill built, with narrow, crooked, and! 
gloomy streets. The following are the most important - 

Cairo (350,000 ) ‘“The Victorious,” is on the Nile five miles from' 
the commencement of the delta. 

It has eighty public baths, three hundred mosques and a Mohammedan* 1 
university of 11,000 students. Climate is healthy. 

Alexandria , (212,000) so named by its founder, Alexander the 1 
Great, is the emporium of Egypt. 

It is 112 miles from Cairo, and exports corn, cotton, rice, wool, gumsj 
dates, sugar: and imports woolen and silk goods, hardware, coal, machinery r 
etc. Its library founded by Ptolemy Philadelplnis, was the largest of ancient 
times, numbering 700,000 volumes, and was accidentally destroyed by fire in 
the wars with Julius Cresar and Caliph Omar. At one time the city con- ! 
tained 600,000 inhabitants. “ Pompey's Pillar and the catacombs at the Ne- 1 
cropolis are tne most interesting remains of antiquity.” 

Tripoli , (20,000) on a rockv promontory of the Mediterranean, j 
300 miles from Sicily and 6co miles from Algiers, has a fine 
harbor; owing to the marshes near by the climate is unhealthy. 

Tunis , (125,000) is about three miles from the ancient city 
Carthage. 

It is a very ugly city and everything is exceedingly filthy. Its population 
numbers 25,000 Jews. 

Morocco , (40,000) the capital of Morocco and formerly a flour¬ 
ishing city, is now half in ruins. 

In its appearance it resembles Tunis. Its walls are entered by eleven 
gates. 

Algiers , (52,000) is built on the north slope of a hill 500 feet 
high and facing the Mediterranean. 

o o 

Its houses are painted white and the city presents a fine appearance at a| 
distance on the sea. There are some fine squares and public gardens. 

Fez, (65,000) is the most important city in Morocco. * 

The streets are dark and extremely frlthy; the houses are high. Ten 
thousand Jews live here. 

Cape Town , (45,000) is the principal city of Cape Colony and 
is well paved, well lighted and contains several colleges, hospitals/ 
and public gardens. 

Tananarivo , (75,000) the capital of Madagascar, has a fine 
situation in the center of the island and contains manufactures of 
beautiful gold and silver chains, and silk goods. 

Mozambique , (35,000) is on a fine bay (5^ miles long and 5 miles 
wide) on the eastern coast. 










A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


283?- 


Other cities are Zanzibar, So,oco; Oran, 34,000; Pretoria, (small 
city); Constantina, 35,000; Monrovia, 1,000; Free Town 1 3.000;:: 
Berbera, (small city). 


HISTORY. 


36. Though Africa gave birth to many arts and sciences, vet in no-part of the- 
world are the masses of the people so ignorant and degraded. Egypt, 3,000* 
years ago, was the chief seat of human learning, and thence civilization spread 
over the world. Carthage , in Northern Africa, was distinguished for its- power 
and civilization, becoming for a time the competitor of Ancient' Rome. In 
the subsequent nges, even Egypt and other enlightened portions of the conti¬ 
nent were buried in Barbarism, from which they have not since emerged. In- 
all ages, the negro natives appear to have been nearly the same as now, with¬ 
out books or education, or enlightened institutions. 

ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

37. The ancients appear to have had very inadequate and erroneous notions- 
respecting Africa. The name which is now given to the whole continent was- 
restricted to a small territory, including Carthage and its vicinity. The 
ancients were only acquainted with the northern and eastern coasts, and 

deemed it less extensive than Europe. The Carthaginians, it is supposed,, 
circumavigated Africa; but no distinct idea of its geography seems to have 
been formed bv them. Indeed, this division of the world in the early ages 
was a region of mvstery, and continued so even down to the present century. 
It is but recently that the sources of the Nile and Niger have been ascertain¬ 
ed; and even now, the great interior region called Rthiapia is an unknown- 
land. 


DOMINION OF THE KIIEDIVE'. 


MAP EXERCISES. 


Locate the following: 

Political Divisions: —Egypt, Nubia, Kordafati, and Darfur. 
Rivers: —Nile, Atbara, Blue Nile, Arab, Gazede. 

(j lTIES; —Cairo, Alexandria, Suez, Rosetta, Khartum, Damiettav 

Miscellaneous:— Bound Egypt. What is the latitude, and lon¬ 
gitude of its capital. What is the difference of time and! 
distance in miles between Cairo and London? In what zone- 
is Egypt? 







A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


DESCRIPTION. 


EXTENT. 


*• Areas and population of the divisions of the Dominion of 
rthe Khedive. 


l^rea 4»f Egypt,.,. 


POULATION. 

ft OKA AAA 

*•* ** Nubia,. 


1 AAA AAA 

" Darfur,. . 


1,000,000 

5,000,000 

2,170,000 

‘‘Kordofan....'. . 

10o,0U0 

nnn 



Total population, . 

1 

13,422,000 


SURFACE. 


2. This- famous country is a long and narrow strip of land 
iymg between two ranges of mountains, and traversed by the Nile 
IXarfur is an immense oasis of the Sahara, and Kordofan is a vast 
>level tract. 

RIVERS. 

3 - „ TI - N ! le after a course of more than 4,000 miles, empties 
into the Mediterranean through eleven mouths. 

This river is remarkable for its overflow which fertilizes its banks It 
'•receives not a single tributary during the last 1,500 miles of its course, and 

“ 4hc river grow * smaller near its mouth, owing to the evaporation of its waters 
and to the sinking away of a some of them through the sands. 

• ItS u PPer course contains many rapids and falls, and some fine 
scenei y 1 he chief tributaries of the Nile are the Atbara and Blue 
■Nile on the east, and the Gazelle on the west. 

SOIL. 

4. The valley of the Nile and the delta embracing an area of 

11,350 square miles is celebrated for its fertility. Nubia formerlv 
called Ethiopia, once the seat of populous Ld civilizations 
*s now marked with barbarism and desolation. It is composed of 
rocky and sandy deserts, with strips of fertile soil. The average 
width of the valley of the Nile is about eight miles. B 

CLIMATE. 

5. It seldom rains inEgypt.but in the regions of the upper Nile 
the rains are abundant, which give rise to the floods. The' climate 
js &ot and dry and the country is subject to the plague. 

The temperature of the delta is considerably modified bv the 
ijgproxtmity to the sea, and themorth winds. ^ 

















-A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


285 - 


vegetation 

6 . Sugar, corn, rice, cotton, tobacco, and indigo are the chief 
products. 

The waters of the Nile, during the period of inundation are collected in 
reservoirs, and afterward used for irrigating the land. 

dates, figs, and tamarinds are of an excellent quality. 
Forest trees are scarce, but many have been planted of kite yeai> 
and an increase of rain-fall has resulted. 


ANIMALS. 

7 - T . he gazelle, hyena, and jackel are animals of the deserf. 
Crocodiles and hippopotamuses are numerous in the middle ahd 
upper course of the Nile. 

Nearly all the domestic animals of Europe are bred here. 
Ie.ilPoultry and pigeons are kept in enormous numbers; the egsrs of 




istl 


the former are hatched out in artificial ovens, 
donkeys, and mules are extensively raised. 


Camels, buffaloes,. 


MANUFACTURES. 


esl 



IS 


8 . The manufacturing interests of Egypt consists chiefly in tfie 
weaving of cotton, linen, and woolen fabrics, and in the manufac¬ 
ture of leather, coarse potterv, glassware, and household-goods.. 
Outside of Egypt there is little manufacturing. 


COMMERCE. 


9 - Egypt has extensive foreign trade, which is facilitated by 
the numerous rail-roads already in operation. There are many 
canals of great size, upon which and the Nile, steamboats ply. 

The leading articles of export *re cotton, sugar, pulse, wheat,... 
. ivory, senna, and gums. 

The imported staples are woven goods, petroleum, timber, iron, 
' s f and coal. 

Great Britain monopolizes more'than half the commerce; France, Att- 
e stria, and Italy also have large interests. The trade with Soudan is Targe. 
The exports , (of iSSo) amounted to $52,000,000, and the imports to afxxit 
$26,200,000. 

INHABITANTS. 

10. The gieater number of the people are Arabs. The Coprts v 
the descendants of the Ancient Egyptians, form about one-third of 
the inhabitants. Besides these there are iome Jews and .Turks:, 
the latter constitute the ruling people.. 









*r286 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


RELIGION. 

11. Mohammedanism is the prevailing religion. In the south, 
flioweveu, it has become sadly corrupted by the intermixture of 
.•pagan rites. There are also many Christains in Lower Egypt. 

education, 

12. The bulk of the people are in a degraded condition. There 
are a few schools. Egypt, once the cradle of the arts and sciences, 

...and renowned in ancient history, is now chiefly celebrated for its 
vwonderful ruins. 

ANTIQUITIES. 

13. The splendid remains of antiquitity in Egypt attest its 
J, £ormer granduer. 

The Pyramids of which there are near a hundred, are the most 
•stupendous works of man. The largest, at Ghizeh, near the Nile, 

• covers eleven acres of ground, and is about five hundred feet high. 
Besides these, in various places there are majestic images, statutes, 
and obelisks, with the colossal ruins of temples and cities, which 
»excite the wonder and admiration of the beholder. 

CITIES. 

14. Cairo, and Alexandria have been noticed. The latter quite 
recently (1882) was bombarded and burnt to the ground by the 
English. Posetta is finely built and is a favorite place for summer 
•visitors. Here, in 1799. was found the famous “Rosetta Stone” 
which gave the key to Egyptian Hyeroglyphics. Damietta, Suez, 
Port Said are other important towns. 


HISTORY. 


The thisfeory of Egypt goes back to the early ages of the world. The 
-earliest dynasty of which we have any account, goes back to 4004 B. C. It is 
.also supposed to have been settled by the descendants of Ham, led by Miz- 
rainv , sometimes called Menes , 21SS B. C. Owing to the fertility of the soil, 

• the inhabitants rapidly increased. Even in the time of Abraham, Egypt had 
.become noted for its wealth and splendor. In the time or Moses, about 1520 
B.<h it bad become the most learned and civilized portion of the globe, and 

. continued so for many centuries afterward. It was conquered by the Per¬ 
sians in the year 529, B. C.; by Alexander, in 332; and by the Romans, 30 B. 

• C. The last of a long line of sovereigns, called Ptolemies, was Cleopatrh, re- * 
nowned alike for her beauty, her splendid court, and the romantic incidents of 

1 her fl^. Egypt passed under the yoke of theByzantine empire, and was wrested 
from them by the Saracens 640 A. I). The Turks conquered it in 1517; the. 

I 'French in 1799; in 1S39 it became a fief of the Ottoman Empire. 





A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


287 


OCEANICA. 


MAP EXERCISES. 

Locate the following:— 

Islands: —New Guinea, Sumatra, Java, Celebes, Borneo, New 
Zealand, North, South, Tasmania, Banda, Philippine, Caroline, 
Pelew, Gilbert, Ellice, Solomons, Ralick, Radack. Fejee, 
Loyalty, New Caledonia, Cooks, Navigator, Society, Friend¬ 
ly, Easter, Sandwich, Hawaii, Maui, Oahu, Kauai, Sumbawa, 
Floris, Timor, Sula, Palawan, Mindanao, Gilolo, New Brit- 
ania, Louisiade, New Hebrides, Great Barrier Reefs, King, 
Kermadec, Sta Cruz, Ceram, Marquesas. Sangir, Nassau. 

Straits and Channels. —Bass, Malacca, Sunda, Karimata, 
Macassar, Torres, Balabak, Cook, Molucca Passage, Foveaux. 

Capes. —York, South, Wilson, Sandy, Howe, Spencer, Catas- 
tiophe, Leu win, Naturaliste, North West, L.eveque, London¬ 
derry, Wilberforce, Arnhem, Melville, Flattery, Grafton, 
Danger, West, North, East, D’Urville, Sambar. 

Culfs and Bays. —Carpentaria, Australian, Spencer, Encounter, 
Sharks, Roebuck, Collier, York, Admiralty, Brunswick, 
Cambridge, Van Dieman, Halifax, Keppel, Shoe), Trial, 
Hauraki, Papua, Huan, Geelwink, Tomini, Tolo, Boni. 

Mountain Ranges. —Liverpool, New England, Heischel, Darl¬ 
ing, Australian Alps, Blue, Gourock, Ashburton, McDonnell, 
Gawler, Flinders, Peterman, Snowy, Stuart, Kimberly, 

Mountain Peaks.— Hotham, Lomond, Augustus, Bruce, Vigors 
Mann, Sea View, Lindsay, Cook. Aspiring, Franklin, Ruap- 
ahn, Tongariro, Edgecombe, Earnslaw, Simpson, Owen 
Stanley, °Tomboro, Merapi, Semeru, Ophir, Dempo, 
Apabaran, Siugallang, Panjong, Manna Loa, Mauna Kea, 
Haleakala, Kilauea. 

Lakes.— Moore, Lefroy, Gairdner, Torrens, Gregory, Frome, 
Eyre, Amadeus, Salt Lake, Austin, Tawpo, Bar'lee. 

Rivers. _Murray, Darling, Lachlan, Victoria Murrumbidgee, 

Murchison, Cooper, Flinders, Ashburton, Condamine, Bely- 
ando, Kapooas, Cott, Barito, Ambermo. 

Seas.— Sulu, Arafura, Celebes, Java, South China, Banda, Yellow. 

Relative Position.— In what direction is Tasmania from New 
Zealani? from Perth? from Fejee Islands? from Shark’s Bay? 
from Tomboro? from Batavia? from Sidney? 

Travels. —Trace a water route from Adelaide to Singapore; to 
Sidney; to Wellington; to Sarawak. From Melbourne to Cal- 






288 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


cutta; to Bushire; to Monrovia; to Copenhagen; to Olympia; 
to Sebastopol; to Kansas City. 

Miscellaneous.— Between what parallels does Australia lie? 
between what meridians? What islands and what waters are 
crossed by the equator? by io° south? by io° north? What 
meridian passes through Bass Strait? What parallel? What 
islands are crossed by the 120° east longitude? What season 

now m New Zealand? in Australia? in Banca? What time is 
it at Sidney when it is noon in Columbus? What is the time 
at Singapore when it is 3 P-. M. at Paris? What is the differ¬ 
ence of time between Sidney and Wellington? Between Sid¬ 
ney and Perth? Between Hobart Town and Bombay? Be¬ 
tween Adelaide and San Francisco? When it is 10 o’clock 
Sunday at San Francisco what is the time at Sidney? What 
is. the length of the longest day at Hobart Town? at Perth? at 
Cape W>rk What is the distance in statute miles from Sid- 
ney to Perth to Wellington ? to Hobart Town ? to Cape York? 
What, from the Sandwich Islands to San Francisco? to Sidney > 
to Hong Kong? to Yeddo? Where does the clock show the 
same hour as at Melbourne? 


description.. 


position. 


*' pceamea includes the islands of the Pacific Ocean It 
extends from 50 south to 40° north, and from 10S 0 west to 95° 

DIVISIONS AND EXTENT. 

2. Oceanica is divided by geographers into three divisions. 

(ij Malaysia, so called from being inhabited chiefly by the 
Malays, includes the islands Sumatra Borneo Tov* ' tlie 

the j sl ds) an<1 Philippine Inufsplce^ (known ^"the 

{Sptce Islands). Area 760,000 square miles 

New S ^ th - east of A “«. delude, 

groups of islands 

( 3 ) Polynesia , signifying many island* embrace* fU- f c 
Oceanic, and consists of numerous island groups.** Area coooo 
square nnles. Area of Oceanica 4,500,000 senate milt 5 ’ 




A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 




The following table gives the principal islands, together with 
areas, populations, etc. 


NAMES OF ISLANDS. 

LENGTH. 

BREADTH. 

Borneo, . 

85C 

B80 

T ’ . . 

Sumatra,.. 

now OO ID 1 1 

^ 09 * fin trx lift 

Celebes, . 

700 

00 to 3w0 

^Philippine. .. 

I.uzen. 


130 

30 to 275 
Ho 
04 
00 

Mindanao . . 

300 

200 

Palawan.... 

Banca . 

]0.s 

Timor, . 

800 

Floris,. 

Spice,... 

120 

85 

New Guinea, . 

1 , Bo¬ 
rn 

30 to 40' 

Tasmania, . 

200 

New Zealand . 

New Caledonia . 

220 

30 

yFeejee, .. 

f Sandwich, . 



Australia, 

2,500 

1,050 

Queensland, . 

■ New South Wales,... 



Victoria, . 



South Australia. . 



West Australia, . 




AREA. 

POPULATION. 

284,00," 

2.500,000 

50,000 

18,335,000 

177,000 

3,000,000 

70,000 

2,000,000 

117,000 

7,450,000 

58,<M 0 

4,450,000 

30,1 M)0 

733,000 

7,500 

4,300 

54,000 

10,000 

100,000 

3,000 

43,000 

332,000 

275,000 


2(5,000 

104,000 

10(5,000 

350,000 

5,< (Mi 

58.000 

8,000 

118,000 

7,(530 

57,000 

2,983,000 

2,250,000 

078,000 

11(54,000 

825,000 

1584,000 

88,000 

I824,0(K> 

914.o(Mi| 

1213,000 

978,0O()l 

12(5,000 


* 1,200 in all, and 480 inhabited. JCensm of 1871 . 

-|-225 islands; so inhabited. 

115 islands; 8 inhabited. 

COAST. 


3. Australia, like all southern continents, has a regular coast 
line with few deep indentations. There are S,000 miles of sea-coast. 
Many other islands are deeply indented and contain some valuable 
harbors. 

CAPES. 


4. Cape York extends from York Peninsula into Bass Strait. 
Cape Howe projects from the south-east of Australia, etc. 

GULFS AND RAYS. 

5. The principal gulfs and bays are Carpentaria on the north 
' of Australia, tributary to the Arafura Sea; Encounter Bay on the 

south and tributary to the Australian Bight, etc. 


SEAS. 

6. - Several seas exist among the north-western islands; viz., 
the Arafura north-west of Australia, Java Sea north of Java and 
south of Borneo. Other seas are Sula, Celebes, Banda, etc. 

CHANNELS, STRAITS, ETC. 

7. Bass Strait separates Australia from Tasmania and connects. 






















































200 


A MANUAL of geography. 


the Pacific with the Indian Ocean. The Torres Strait separates 
Australia from New Guinea, etc. 


NAMES OF STRAITS. 

WIDTH. 

LENGTH, 


150 

80 

70 

55 to 200 
70 to 210! 

2 G0 miles 

Torres,. 

Sunda,. 

100 miles 
520 “ 

350 “ 

-(-Malacca,. 

Macassar,... 


Torres discovered. it in 160i>. 
r Dangerous. 

ISLANDS. 


S. The principal islands have been given. (Let the pupil 
locate as many as he is able from memory.) 


PENINSULAS. 

9. A here are a number ot Peninsulas on seveial islands, but the 
names are not generally known. A ork Peninsula is the most im¬ 
portant peninsula ot Australia; it projects from the north-eastern 
part and is about 500 miles long. The soil is poor. 


GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SURFACE. 


10, Australia resembles Atrica in its surface; mountains ex¬ 
tend along the coast forming as it were a huge trough in the in¬ 
terior. There is some low marshy land along the coast in a few 
places. The interior has been but partially explored, and is said 
to be an immense plain almost altogether sterile. 

Tasmania , New Zealand and the Sunda Islands have a rough, 
mountainous surface. 


1 lie S(uiii evich and many other islands present an exceedingly roug'h ex- 
teiior. Many ot the islands of the Pacific are volcanic , and send forth terrific 
volumes ot lava, smoke, and ashes. Many are evidently built up by myriads 
of coiallines, which are sea-animals so small as to be scarcely observed by 
the naked eye. These animals are found only in tropical waters where the 
tempeiatme is not less than 6S° Fall.; they cannot exist at a greater depth 
than 120 feet, nor above water,'although many of the is’ands are several thou¬ 
sand feet high from their base. 


I he coral island is an aggregate of stony cells composed of carbonate of 
lime, and these cells are the skeletons of the coral animal. The coral animal 
builds perpendicularly at a rate of about one inch in a century. 

J * 


The bed of the ocean sank about as rapidly as the coral built upward, and 
thus, in course of time, these coral islands became very high. When they 
reached the surface, the coral died, and the tops of the* islands were disin- 
tegiated by the action ot the waves, a soil was formed, winds and currents 
brought seeds, animals, and even man himself, and in this way became the 
abode of human beings. 






















A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


291 


MOUNTAIN RANGES. 

V: The . Snowy range trends through the island of New Guinea 
and is considered very high. nea 

_ A ^ e ra ’ l S\ s . °f Australia are not very high; those in the south- 
east me the highest; the principal are the Liverpool, New England, 
d Australian Alps. Ihey are nearly as high as the Apalachian. 


MOUNTAIN PEAKS. 


12. Alt. Hothain the highest peak of 
eastern part. Ihere are no volcanoes 
islands they are numerous. 


Australia is in the south- 
in Australia, but on the 


Tomboro on the island oi Sumbawa is 
terrific volcano on the globe. 


next to Cotopaxi the most 


uung the fear.ill eruption of 1815, ashes fell in such enormous quantities 
at a distance of fortv miles that houses were crushed beneath the weight; at 
a distance of 240 miles the ashes covered the ground one and a half Inches; 
and at a distance of 800 miles the sea was so covered that a crust was formed 
'upon it*. 


The volcanoes of J launaLoa and Kilauca in Hawaii are notable 
•examples of volcanic activitv. 

Their craters are the largest in the world and occasionally 
-streams of^ melted lava escape from them and roll to the sea like 
rivers of fire, leveling forests and everything that comes in their 
way. 


The most remarkable.instance of this kind took place in 1S40, when a 
stream of lava from one to four miles wide plunged into the sea, for three 
weeks; during which time, at a distance of forty miles, fine print could be 
read at midnight, by its light. 


MOUNTAIN PEAKS. 

HEIGHT. 

MOUNTAIN PEAKS. 

HEIGHT. 

Tomboro,. 

9,000 

7,500 

5,000 

18.760 

13.950 

Hook, 

13,200 

10.01)0 

6.500 
8,270 

2.500 
13,000 

Hothain,. 

Franklin, 

Bt*n Lemond,. 

Taugariro, 

Mauna Loa. 

Eginont, 

Manna Kea,. 


Ophir,. 

13,80010wen - S t a 11 1 ey,. 


Ophir , an isolated peak 5,690 feet high, and 45 miles E. N. E. of Malacca, 
is rich in gold at its base, and some have thought that Solomon obtained the 
■“Gold of Ophir” for the temple, at this place. 


PLAINS. 

13. The greater portion of Australia is a plain. In the interior 
•is a desert tract called “Stony Desert .” A belt of land from 40 to 
300 nules wide lies between the mountains of Australia and the 
pen. The widest place is in the south-east. 




























292 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


OBJECTS OF INTEREST. 

14. Java is a land of wonders. The “ Poison Valley ’ about 
one-half mile around, is held in horror by the natives. 

Everv living thing that enters it drops dead, and the bottom is covered 1 
with the skeletons of dogs, deer, birds and even men who have incautiously- 
entered it. It is filled with carbonic acid 'gas. 

There is another crater in which tigers and other animals have 
been killed by the sulphurous exhalations. 

At the east end of the island there is in the crater of a volanco a small lake so 
strongly impregnated with sulphuric acid that fish cannot live near its mouth 
where it empties into the sea; besides numerous Hindoo monuments of an¬ 
tiquity are found. 

Sumatra is regarded interesting because of its numerous vol¬ 
canoes; more than 50 active volcanoes are found here. 

Australia is remarkable for its animals. 

YVe find here the most beautiful birds, but they do not sing; birds without 
feathers, an animal with the bill of a duck and the body of an otter, called the 
ornithorhynchus ; fioivers of exquisite colors, but with no fragrance, while the 
leaves of many trees are highly aromatic; pears with the stem on the large 
end; cherries with the stone on the outside; trees that shed their bark instead 
of their leaves, and whose leaves give no shade and do not vary in color with 
the seasons; bees that do not sting; black swans and white eagles. 

Some of the islands abound in fin# mountain scenery. In the 
island of New Guinea we find the bird of paradise, the lyre bird\ 
perhaps the most "beautiful biids that are known. 

LAKES. 

1=;. There are no lakes worthy of mention except those of 
Australia; and they are shallow and mostly small in size, though 
in some places numerous. Many of them dry up entirely during 
the dry season. Lake Torrens is 150 miles long. 30 wide, and has 
an area of 4,000 square miles. 

RIVERS. 

16. The rivers of Australia like those of Africa are broad and 
shallow. Many of them lose themselves in the sand. 

The Murray is the largest; it is 1,600 miles long and drains a 
basin of 500,000 square miles. It is navigable during the greater 
part of the year and for the greater part of its course. 

The Darling 1,160 miles long, is its principal tributary. It is 
also navigable for small vessels. 

Murrumbidgee is 1,350 miles long and is navigable nearly to its 
source. 

The rivers of the islands are unimportant. There are several rivers which 
empty into the gulf of Carpentaria that are navigable for short distances. 





A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


293 




SOIL. 

17. In most ot the islands the soil is very fertile, except in the 
mountainous parts. 

A 7 iarro~d) belt of Australia along the coast, about 40 miles wide 
at the north and increasing in width to 300 miles in the south-east 
is extremely fertile, but on the whole better adapted to grazing 
than to tilling. 

The interior is sandy and sterile. 

Victoria seems to be the most productive province of all the 
continent. 

“ The plough might be driven,” savs Sidnev. for 100 miles in a straight 
line, turning up a rich mould along the whole tract.” 

I ast tracts of well watered land are covered with heavy timber. 

“ Pasture lands extend for hundreds of miles—now ascending the mount¬ 
ain slopes to their very summits; here spreading out into vast plains, and there 
undulating gently, or running over rough hills, or broken with reeky ranges, 
and ending in deep gullies, sandy or stony deserts, or marshes.” 

CLIMATE. 

iS. Java and some of the other islands are unhealthy along 
the coast, but pleasant and healthful in the interior. 

The East Indies are frequently visited by severe storms. 

The climate of Australia is singular; the country is subject to 
long seasons of drought lasting for several months or as many 
years. There are no high mountains in the interior to condense the 
vapors, and the mountains along the coast drain the air of much of 
its moisture. Besides the situation of the continent is within a belt 
over which the great trade currents are advancing from colder to 
warmer regions, thus taking up moisture rather than parting with 
it. The winds do not as a rule blow across the continent but along 
the shore; hence the interior is dry. 

Rains often come with great suddenness and with such violence that the 
river valleys are soon filled to overflowing, and dry basins are converted into 
lakes. Little lasting benefit results from these rains, as the water disappears 
so rapidly that the ground is drv almost as soon as it has ceased to rain. 

Dense clouds of dust occur frequently but do no particular 
damage. The climate of Australia is remarkably free from epi¬ 
demic diseases , and people generally live to a great age. 

The temperature is subject to changes, sudden and great, to an 
extraordinary degree. 

Sometimes a variation of 99 0 occurs in twelve hours, and from 20° to 30° 
in half an hour. During the day the heat is often excessive, the thermometer 
sometimes indicating a temperature of 120° or more. 



294 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


The rainy season occurs in the south from Maich till September; 
in the north, from November till April. 

VEGETATION. 

19. Iii vegetation Australia is as singular as in other respects; 
very few varieties of trees and plants are native. 

The Eucalyptus has some 400 varieties, and is regarded as very 
valuable for its wood. One variety is believed to be the largest 
tiee in the world. 

The eucalyptus trees have the power of absorbing malarial poisons from 
the atmosphere, and are planted in other countries in low, marshy grounds* 
to purify the air. Many parts of Italy, formerly uninhabited, because of the ji 
malarial poison arising from the soil, have been made quite healthy by these 
trees. 

There are no native fruits except a few small and almost 
worthless berries. 

All the grains and fruits which have been introduced do well.. 
Wheat, corn, barley, cotton, sugar cane, oranges, lemons, etc., are 
cultivated with perfect success. 

The East Indies produce nutmegs, cloves, pepper, cinnamon, 
and other spices, besides coffee, and all the various tropical fruits.. 

MINERALS. 

20. Australia ranks high in the production of gold\ Victoria, 
and New South Wales are richest in this metal. 

Copper is found in Victoria and South Australia. 

Good iron ore and excellent coal are abundant in the eastern part. 

Tin exists in large quantities in the island of Banca as well as 
in Eastern Australia. 

Lead , silver , and precious stones are found at various points. 

MANUFACTURES. 

21. The manufactures of this portion of the world are yet very 
limited. A lew establishments have recently been erectefd for the 
manufacture of cotton and woolen goods. 

o 

It is the policy of the British, government to make Australia a country 
producing raw material, and in turn to supply it with her manufactures. 

The islands are inhabited chiefly by barbarous or half-civilized 
races and their manufactures are not important. 

We will give here the principal productions ol the largest islands. 

Borneo; diamonds, mercury, salt, petroleum, tin, copper, won, nutmegs, 
cinnamon, cloves, rattans, f Java coffee, indigo, pepper, cotton, rice, cochineal. 
tea. 








A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


29 O 


Sumatra; granite, marble, porphyry, sulphur, petroleum, gold, copper 
lignite, saltpeter, and tin. 

Tasmania; coal exists in nearly all parts; gold, lead, copper, iron, and 
precious stones, in some places. 

JVew Guinea; pearls, gold, fine woods, rosins, Bamboos. 

Aezv Zeland; coal, copper, cattle, sheep, swine, horses. 

Nezv Caledonia; great mineral wealth. 

Sandzvich; bread-fruit, sugar cane, sandal-wood, arum, and tropical 
fruits. 

Fcejee; tropical fruits, tobacco, cotton, and mother-of-pearl. 


COMMERCE. 

22. The commerce of the East Inches is important. Coffee, 
tropical fruits, spices, gold, tin, drugs, and fine woods are exported. 
Gold is the most impoitant article ot export from Australia, and 
next to gold, the most valuable is wool ; wheat and coffee are ex¬ 
ported from South Australia. 

The iff/ports aie cottons, woolens, hardware, locomotives, cars, 
rail-road iron, agricultural implements. 

In all the islands and Australia the commerce is carried on chiefly by for¬ 
eigners. The commerce of the United States with these islands is rapidly 
growing in importance. The exports of Australia are $125,000,000 annually 
and the imports are $120,000,000. 


X ATURA L AD VA XTAGES. 


23. (Let the pupil 
preceding models.) 


give the natural advantages according’to 


IX T E R X A L IMPROVEMENTS. 

24. Telegraph lines connect all important places on the islands 
and by the submarine cables Australia and the principal islands 
have communication with all parts of the world. 

Railroads are being built so rapidly that Australia has already 
several thousand miles completed. The larger islands have rail¬ 
ways penetrating their interior and crossing them from one side to 
the other. They are built chiefly by foreign capitalists. In the 
civilized portions, the people live in good substantial houses, but on 
many of the islands the people build their houses on stilts or posts. 

But few good waoon roads and bridges exist. 

o o o 

Nowhere in the world except in our own United States lias there been 
such rapid growth of cities as in Australia. People from all parts of the 
world have been drawn hither by the reports of the vast gold fields, and her 
cities and country have developed as if by magic. 





296 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


ANIMALS. 

25. The native animals of Australia are but few; the chief are 
the wild dog, the only carnivora, the kangaroo, about 20 varieties 
•of bats, monkeys, and ants-of all sizes; some of the latter are an inch 
long, and live in immense Hillocks; their bite is verv painful. The 
most beautiful birds are found on some of the islands, especially on 
New Guinea. 

In Malaysia there are many small animals and insects whose 
bite is very poisonous. 

The do?nestic animals are buffaloes, small horses, hogs and goats. 
'The elephant, tiger, leopard, rhinoceros^ hippopotamus, and croc¬ 
odile, are common. 

INHABITANTS. 

26. The great majority of the inhabitants of Australia are emi¬ 
grants from Great Britain. 

The native population numbering about 50,000 are a very 
degraded race; they are black, with curly hair, but not the ciisp 
wool of the negro, and their lips less protruding. They go entirely 
naked for the most part, and live mainly bv hunting and fishing, 
but e<p worms, insects, and other repulsive things. 

The whites are held by them in great reverence, as they believe them the 
reanimated souls of. the blacks. They build fire by rubbing two sticks to¬ 
gether, but they frequently eat their meat raw. 

In the mode of cooking they dig a hole in the ground, light a fire in it, 
place in the slain animal and cover with earth; when the fire has gone out the 
animal is regarded sufficiently cooked. 

They throw the boomerang with great skill; it is an instrument shaped 
like a double edged sword bent to the form of an ellipse; on being thrown into 
the air it strikes the ground and rebounds toward the thrower. Tney bury 
their dead in the exact spot where they die, and that place is never inhabited 
•by them again. The inhabitants of Polynesia belong to this race. 

The Malays inhabit Malaysia; there were formerly many canni¬ 
bals and pirates among them, but through the labor of missionaries 
their condition has been much ameliorated. 

POPULATION. 

27. Oceanica, 29,102,000; Australasia, 4,600,030; Polynesia, 
454,000; Malaysia, 24,048,000; Australia, .2,250,000. 

OCCUPATION OF THE INHABITANTS. 

28. The people of Australia are engaged chiefly in mining and 
farming; the raising of sheep and cattle has become an important 
occuDation among the colonists. Agriculture in some form is 
Tarried on in nearly all the habitable islands. 




A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


297 


The inhabitants of Java are engaged to a considerable 
manufacturing and trading, in the latter occupation they 
great shrewdness. Hunting and jishing are the chief 
ments of the savage tribes. 

LANGUAGE. 

29. The English language is spoken mainlv in the British 
colonies. A great variety of languages and dialects are spoken 
among the Malays and barbarous tribes. 

GOVERNMENT. 

30. The government of Australia is colonial and is controlled 
by the British. The governor of each colony is appointed in Eng¬ 
land; a legislative council and a legislative assembly, are chosen by 
universal suffrage. 

Nearly all the islands are subject to foreign powers and conse¬ 
quently regulated by these powers. The following topic will 
exhibit the government more clearly. 

FOREIGN POSSESSIONS. 

31. The British possessions are Australia, Tasmania, New 
Zealand, Fejee Isles, the eastern halt of New Guinea, and North¬ 
western Borneo. 

New Caledonia belongs to France; also Marquesas and the 
Society Islands. 

The Caroline, Ladrone. Philippine Islands belong to Spain. 

The eastern part of Sumatra from north to south, Java, Celebes, 
Banca, Spice Islands, the southern and eastern parts of B01 neo, 
and the western half of New Guinea belong to the Dutch. 

EDUCATION. 

32. The inhabitants of the Polynesian islands are generally 
savages; of this group the Sandwich are the most important. 

The people of this island group have lately been civilized, and schools are 
now generally established. At Honolulu, their capital, nearly all ships sail¬ 
ing between America and the countries across the Pacific, stop; and tor 
this reason these islands have made rapid strides in European and American 
culture. 

Education has not made much progress i n Malaysia; the people 
are generally illiterate. The cause of general education has made 
great progress in Australia ; the different colonial governments 
aid in the establishment of schools. Sydney and Melbourne have 
universities. 


extent in 
manifest 
em ploy- 




V 


298 A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 

RELIGION. 

o 

33. The great majority of the inhabitants are pagans. The* n 
Europeans have carried their religion with them wherever thev a 
have made settlements. There are many Roman Catholics in e 
Australia, and some Mohammedans, and Jews; but the bulk of the*. 5 
population are the various branches of the Protestant faith. 

cities. || n 

I i fc 

34. Batavia is the commercial emporium of the Malay Islands! e r 

it is a ven filthy and unhealthy city. The Dutch have introduced 4 
many improvements. IL 

Sarawak on the western coast of Borneo carries on considerable ! 
trade, chiefly with Singapore. 

Hobart Town has a fine harbor and a number of good public- 
buildings. 

Sydney , the oldest city of Australia, being founded in 17SS, lies- 
on a beautiful and commodious harbor; it is a handsome city, and 
has great educational advantages—three colleges and a university] 

Melbourne is the chief commercial city of Australia. 

Adelaide , the capital of South Australia, has numerous 
buildings. 

Batavia,. 100,000 Melbourne,. . . 

Sarawak,. 18,000 Adelaide,. 

Hobart Town,. 19,000 Perth... 

Sydney,. 224,000 Wellington,. 

Auckland,. 29,000 Ballarat,... 


HISTORY. 


public 

IB 

282,00a Is 
3S,ooo- Rt 
5,000 
21,0005 
37,000 

1 Ci 


35. The Ancients had some faint notion of the existence of islands bei 
yond the region which they denominated Farther India; but we have no ac -1 
count of any voyage made in this quarter till the middle of the ninth centurvf 
when the Arab navigators , in their intercourse with China visited some of the 
Islands of the Indian Archipelago. Of these voyages we have no particular 
narrative. 


Mi 


The islands appear to have had a native population at the earliest period j 
and settlements were made among them by the Malav adventurers at different 
times. Marco Polo , a Venetian, who traveled to China through Tartary] 
toward the end of the thirteenth century, returned to Europe bv wav of tha 
China sea and Indian ocean. He describes two islands, which he call's Great 
and Little Java; these seem to be Borneo and Sumatra. 


The Portuguese were the first Europeans who began the career of mari-i 
time discovery in the east. They arrived in India by the route of the Cape of 



















A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


299 


Good Hope, in i 49 S. By the year 1510, they had visited all the island* 
ot the Malay Archipelago, as far as the Moluccas. The Spanish, in the 
meantime, under Columbus and his successors, were pushing their discoveries 
and conquests in the west, Balboa having discovered the Pacific, in 1513, as 
elsewhere stated. Australia was discovered bv the Dutch in 1605 and named 
b\ them Acte Holland. Th a first settlement was made in 1788, after a formal 
possession had been taken by Cook, in the name of the English. This conti¬ 
nent was first used as a place of banishment for English convicts, and in 1835 
its name was changed to its present name. In the year 1S51 gold was discov¬ 
ered, and since this period the development of Australia has been rapid.. 
Large areas of the interior are still unexplored, and of the interior of New 

Guinea we, in reality, know nothink 

© 


OHIO. 


map exercises. 

Locate the following - :— 

Bays. —Maumee, Sandusky. 

Islands.— Kelleys, North Bass, Middle Bass, South Bass. 

Rivers. Scioto, Miami, Little Miami, Maumee, Sandusky, Cuy¬ 
ahoga, Grand, Hocking, Muskingum, Mahoning, Blanchard, 
1 uscarawas. 

Cities and Towns.— Cincinnati. Cleveland, Columbus, Toledo 
Dayton, Springfield, Zanesville, Akron, Sandusky, Mansfield 
oungstown, Chillicothe, Circleville, Xenia, Newark, Lan- 
castei, Lima, Massillon, Canton, Tiffin, Fremont, Steuben¬ 
ville, Galiipolis, Marietta, Portsmouth. 

Miscellaneous. —What counties border upon Indiana? upon 
Michigan? Lake Erie? Pennsylvania? What counties are 
separated from West Virginia by the Ohio river? from Ken¬ 
tucky. Name the counties through which the water-shed 
passes. Through what counties do the following rivers flow: 
Scioto, Miami, Maumee, Blanchard, Sandusky, Cuyahoga, 
Grand, Mahoning, Muskingum, Hocking? Which is the 
most southern county of the state? the most northern? the 
most central? What county in the northeast? in the north¬ 
west? in the southwest? which is the largest county? the 
smallest? the most populous? Name the counties in. which 
the ten largest cities are found? Bound vour own county, and 
name its principal streams, towns and products. What 
counties are in your congressional district? What large towns 
on the Scioto? on the Miami? Maumee? Sandusky? Mus- 







300 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


kingu-m? Hocking? Name some of the leading railroads. By 
the scale of miles, what is the distance of the following cities 
from Cleveland: Sandusky, Toledo, Zanesville, Cincinnati, 
Steubenville? 


DESCRIPTION. 


POSITION. ' ||e 

1. This flourishing state belong's to the group of North Central; 
States and is bounded on the north by Michigan and Lake Erie; jt 
on the east by Pennsylvania and West Virginia; on the south by I 1 
West Virginia and Kentucky; and on the west by Indiana. 

o ~ 

LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE. : |> 

2. It extends from 38° 35 min, to 42 0 north latitude, and from > 
So° 30 min. to S4 0 45 min. west longitude. 

EXTENT. |( 

3. The longest distance east and west is 225 miles; north ,; 
and south, 205 miles. Area, 40,760 square miles. 

DISTANCES. 


4. From Columbus on an air line: 


Toledo . 

Sandusky. 

... 140 Cincinnati,. 

132 Portsmouth,. 

. 1^3 Marietta,.. 

. n.C 

. 881 

Mansfield 

.... 61 Steubenville, ... 

. 13] 

Springfield, . 

Lima, . 

. 41 Zanesville, . 

. 52 Canton, . . 

. 105 


COAST. 


5. This State has above 150 miles of coast upon Lake Erie.j 
This extent embraces several harbors. 

Sandusky bay , on 
three to four wide; 
strait, and affords an 

the west, is twenty miles in length, 
it communicates with the lake by 
excellent harbor. 

and from j 
a narrow 


The Bay of Maumee is in the western extremity of the lake, t 
The harbor of Cleveland at the outlet of the Ohio Canal, and that! 
of Ashtabula, farther,east, are frequented by steamboats and other 1 
lake craft. 

islands. II 

6. Kelleys and the Bass islands are the only islands of import¬ 
ance. They are noted for their grapes and wines. 


















A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


301 


SURFACE. 

7- The central portion of this state is a table-land, having an 
average altitude of 1,160 feet; from this the surface slopes to the 
Erie basin on the north, and the Ohio on the south. 

The highest land is found in Logan county 1,540 feet above the sea-level. 
The southeastern part of Richland countv contains hills 1,475 feet high. 

The northern , or Erie plain descends more rapidly in ridges- 
"u hich conform to the course of the lake shore. 

It is supposed by some that Lake Erie at one time extended to the water¬ 
shed, and that these ridges mark the successive boundaries of the lake. 

While there are no mountains % the southern and southeastern 
parts are much broken by rugged hills. In the northern and 
northwestern parts there are some extensive marsh '-onions. 

1 o 

VALLEYS. 


S. There are numerous valleys along the rivers, which are very 
fertile. 


X ATU It A L C U Ft IO SITIE S. 


9. Among these are the ancient mounds near Circleville. Mari¬ 
etta, etc.; the deep canons of the Hocking river, and the natural 
fountains of Bryan, Williams county. Some of the scenery in the 
hilly regions is fine; however, Ohio is not, in general, noted for 
her natural curiosities. 


MINERAL SPRINGS. 

10. The Fellow Springs,, in Green county, sixty-four miles- 
north ot Cincinnati, have been used with advantage in cases of 
chronic diseases. The waters are chalybeate, and have a tempe¬ 
rature of 52 0 . 

The Delaware White Sulphur Springs are similar to the sul¬ 
phur springs of Virginia. 

Those of Green Springs in Seneca county have become fa¬ 
mous for their medical qualities. 


LAKES. 


i i. Lake Erie is about 240 miles long with an average breadth 
of forty miles, though in the widest place it is 58 miles. The 
greatest depth is 270 feet; the average depth is 120 feet, and the sur¬ 
face is 565 te'et above the sea. It is subject to violent storms at 
some seasons of the year. 


I here are several artificial lakr.s or reservoirs in the interior; 
the largest me Saint Marys and Laramie; the former is the largest 
of its kind in the world, covering an. area of 17,000 acres; it is a< 
feeder to the Miami canal. 



'302 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


RIVERS. 


12. Ohio is well watered. The rivers flow from the water¬ 
shed to the lake and to the Ohio. The latter washes the southern 
border of the State, affording- great advantages for navigation. 
The rivers emptying into this are the Miami, Little Miami, Scioto, 
Hocking, Muskingum. 

The Maumee. , Sandusky, Cuyahoga, and Grand river are the 
largest emptying into the lake. 

The only navigable rivers within the State are the Maumee , for 
large boats as far as South Toledo, and sixty miles for smaller 
boats; the Scioto to Columbus, 130 miles; and the Muskingum to 
-Dresden , 93 miles. 


RIVERS. 

LENGTH. 

RIVERS. 

LENGTH. 

Ohio,.......... 


Muskingum, 

T 'i0 in 1 1 po 

Miami,. 


Maum ee, 

I 80 * * 

Scioto,. 


Sandusky,.. 

I CO “ 

Hocking,. 


Cuyahoga, 

t nn 44 


1 

Grand,. 



The last named river is celebrated for its picturesque valley. 


SOIL. 


13. Nine-tenths of the surface of this State is susceptible of 
cultivation. The intervals of rivers are highly fertile. In the in¬ 
terior are large tracts of the most fertile land in country. 

The prairies produce no timber except a tew scattered trees, 
and nowand then a small.grave. Some of the lands which were 
formerly called barrens , are found to be the best land in the 
State. 

The Marshy tracts have an excellent soil and will ere long be¬ 
come the finest farming land of the country. The rugged hillsides 
have a thin and sterile soil. 


CLIMATE. 

14. On account of the general elevation of the surface, the 
tempeiatuie is seveial degrees lower than in the Atlantic regions 
in the same parallels. The climate is salubrious, but subject to ex¬ 
treme changes. The winters are often severe, and the Ohio has 
been frozen at Cincinnati for two months. The summer is subject 
to tornadoes , but the .autumn is always temperate, serene and pleas-' 
ant. " / • * 

In the southern part the climate is more equable than in the inter- 
101 and there is but little snow; in the north, the snows are deep 

ancl there is much sleighing in winter. 

The mean annual temperature in the northern part is 50°; in the central 
part, 51 and in the southern part, 54 0 The average rainfall is 32 inches alono- 
The lake, and 44 inches at Cincinnati. 
















A 31 AX UAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


m 


The lowlands are subject to fevers and ague. 

VEGETABLE PRODUCTIONS. 

15. Ohio occupies a leading position in nearly every branch of 
■agiicultural industry. The Western Reserve is famous for its 
stock and dairy products. Wheat, corn, oats, barley, rye, 
tobacco, potatoes, are immense crops. Apples are raised every¬ 
where, but most abundantly in the Miami Valley and Western 
Reserve. 

It also ranks among the first in the value of its live stock, butter, 

> *cheese and wool. Extensive-vineyards occur in the southwest ar.d 
•on the shores of Lake Erie w ith its islands. 

Owing to the influence of the lake, frosts do not happen on the islands 
and along the shore, till quite late in the fall, so that many delicate varieties of 
; grapes can be produced. 

The forest trees are oak, hickory, chestnut, beach, maple, walnut, 
-sycamore, etc 

MINERALS. 

16. The four most important of all mineral productions—coal, 

salt, iron, and limestone—abound. . * 

f 1 he iron district covers an area of about 10,000 square miles and 
with the coal measures, occupies the eastern and southeastern 
parts of the State. 

I he coal-jicjds cover an area of 11,000 square miles and contain 
some of the finest seams yet discovered. Marble and fiee-stone, 
well adapted for architectural purposes, and gypsum occur. 

Salt Springs are numerous and the brine is strong. 

The northeastern part of the State shares the rich oil regions of 
Pennsylvania. 

M A X u FACT URE S. 

17. Ohio ranks as the fifth State in the Union in the value of 
. bet manufactured products. Her iron works are the most im¬ 
portant. The domestic fabrics are considerable, and there are 

. barge manufactures of cotton and woolen goods, glass, paper lum- 
t her, cars, carriages, machinery, leather, furniture, boots and shoes, 
harness, cement, paints, etc. In the manufacture of agricultural 
implements, Ohio surpasses every other State except Illinois. 

commerce. 

lS. The advantages for trade which are secured by the 
local position of this state, may be perceived by glancing at the 
map. The Ohio affords direct intercourse with all the country in 
the valley of the Mississippi; while by means of Lake Eiie on 


304 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


the north, it communicates with Canada and New York. Many 
trunk lines of railway cross the State and thus afford an outlet for 
the interior to all important marts of the country. Cincinnati, 
Cleveland, Toledo, and Sandusky are 'ports of entry. T. he com¬ 
merce of Ohio is very extensive. 

NATURAL ADVANTAGES. 

19. The pupil should be required to give the natural advantages according 
to preceding models. 

INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. 

20. The first railroad (the Mad River Road) was begun in 
1835. In 1882 there were 7 ^ 9 ° miles, ranking next to Illinois. 

This State has 654 miles of canals proper, 36 miles of feeders, 
and the Muskingum has been made navigable 95 miles to Dresden. 

The “ National Road passes through the State from Wheeling 
westward. 

Several fine bridges cross the Ohio and other streams. 

Institutions of public charity are well provided. 


ANIMALS. 

21. The original wild animals are seldom met with at present. 
Deer, bears, minx, wild cats, panthers, are occasionally seen in the 
sparsely settled regions. 

Foxes, rabbits, squirrels, raccoons, opossums, groundhogs, polecats r weasels, 
muskrats, bats, moles, grouse, pheasants, ducks, quail, snipe, hawks, owls, 
turkey buzzards, and crows are common. . 

Singing birds are numerous. 

Of reptiles there are several species of snakes, frogs, toads, 
lizards, an 4 tortoises. 

The Maumee is said to be the most prolific fishing stream in the 
United States. 

INHABITANTS. 

22. The settlers of this State were mainly from New England, 
and society here is of a somewhat New England character. There 
is, however, a large foreign population, principally in the cities. 

The total number of inhabitants in 1S80 was 3,198,000. 

OCCUPATION. 

23. Agriculticre is the leading pursuit. Manufacturing and 
mining are diligently carried on. Commerce and the fisheries give 
employment to many thousands. 





.A 'MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 




LANGUAGE. 

24. This is Chiefly English , but there are many German settle¬ 
ments whose people use then? native language. The Welsh is used 
in a few localities. 

, GOVERNMENT. 

—-V T be State is divided intoSS counties. The governor is 
elected for a term of two years. The general assembly consists 
of a senate of 36 members antha house of 105 representatives, both 
elected for two years. The State is divided into nine common 
districts, each of which is divided into three parts, each part 
electing one or more judges. The State is also divided into two 
United States judicial districts, the Northern and Southern,' the 
courts being held lmCincinnati,, Cleveland and Toledo. 

According to the last apportionment, Ohio has twenty-one con- 
; gressional districts. The enacting clause of the laws is as follows* 

Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the State of Ohio.” 

EDUCATION. 

26. The education of *the youth is well cared for. 'No State 
affords superior .ad vantages. “The whole system is presided over 
by a State board of examiners, with county secretaries, by a State 
commissioner, and by local superintendents, and boards of educa¬ 
tion. More than one million of children attend school. 

Ohio has thirty-six colleges and universities, two law schools , 
.ten schools of medicine , and nine of theology . Delaware, Oberlin, 
and Wooster, are the principal colleges of the State. 

The Miami university at'Oxford, Ohio university at Athens,and 
the Ohio State univeisity at Columbus, are supported by the State. 

There are no State normal schools, but several of importance 
are conducted by private enterprise, prominent among these, are 
the Northwestern Ohio Normal School, at Ada, and the National 
Normal at Lebanon. 

RELIGION. 

27. The principal religious denomination's, beginning with the 
most prominent, are as follows: Methodist, Presbyterian, Baptist, 
Christian, Lutheran, Roman Catholic, German Reformed, Congre¬ 
gational, Evangelical and Protestant Episcopal. 

CHIEF TOWNS. 

28. Cincinnati , the “ Queen City of the West,” is the largest 
and most important city in the State. It is distinguished for its 
trade, schools, printing and public gardens. 

Cleveland is pleasantly located upon Lakc Lrie,jnu 1 is.Jthe^&es- 
ond city in the Slate, 



BOG 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


It is a beautiful city, well paved and lighted. Euclid avenue is pronounc¬ 
ed--the finest street in the world. It has extensive manufactures and a large 
trade. 

Columbus , the capital, is situated on the Scioto liver, near the cen¬ 
ter of the State. 

It is well laid out with wide streets and possesses superior advantages for 
inland trade. The State house, city hall, the imbecile, and lunatic asylums 
are magnificent structures. 

Toledo is a very flourishing city near the mouth of the Maumee 
river. It has extensive trade, both on the lakes and inland. 

The manufacturing establishments include the largest wagon works in 
America, besides numerous planing mills, sash and blind factories, foundries, 
machine shops, etc. 

Dayton , on the Miami, is celebrated for the extent and varietv 
of its manufactures. 

The public buildings are elegant, among which may be mentioned the 
court-house, built of white marble quarried in the vicinity. Great taste 
is displayed in the architecture of the private residences and the embellish¬ 
ment of the adjoining grounds. 

Spring field, a beautiful city, the county seat of Clark county, is 
noted tor its manufacture of farm implements, flour, iron castings, 
woolen goods, and carriages. 

Sandusky is situated on a bay of the same name. Its wharves 
are constantly crowded by steamboats except in winter. 

The land upon which it is built rises gradually from the shore, which gives 
the city a fine appearance from the bay. It is built upon an immense bed of val¬ 
uable lime-stone, out of which many of the buildings of the city are constructed. 

Zanesville , Alansjield , Akron , Massillon , Lima , Toungsto'wn , 
Xenia, and Xcwark are thriving manufacturing towns and cen¬ 
ters ot trade for rich farming communities. 

The following gives the Dopulation of the the principal towns 
of the State: 


TOWNS. POP. 

TOWNS. POP. 

TOWNS. POP. 

Cincinnati.2^,000 

Cleveland. .160,000 

Columbus.. 152,000 

Toledo. 150,000 

Dayton. 39,000 

Springfield.*. 21,000 

Zanesville. 18,000 

Akron. 16,000 

Sandusky. 16,000 

Defiance. 6,000 

Gabon. 15,800 

East Liverpool... . 5,600 

Findlay. 5 * 5 °° 

Youngstown.115,000 

Canton.12,000 

Hamilton.12,000 

Steubenville.12,000 

Portsmouth .11,000 

Chillicothe. 11.00c 

Mansfield.10.000 

Newark.9,60c 

Ironton. 9,00c 

Norwalk. 5,80c 

Pomerov. =5,600 

Mount Vernon.... 15,1560 
Marietta. 5,40c 

Fremont.8,400 

Bellaire.8,000 

Lima.8,000 

Tiffin..8,000 

Lancaster.7,000 

Delaware.7,000 

Massillon.6,900 

Crbana.6,300 

Circleville. . ..6,000 

Piqua.6,000 

Wooster.6,000 

Alliance.4,600 

Kenton.4,400 


















































A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


307 


HISTORY. 


=9- The territory belonging to Ohio, including that of Indiana, was claimed 
by Virginia as embraced in her orignal patent. The north eastern portion 
along Lake Erie, containing what was called the Western Qwerty, was claimed 
by Connecticut. Virginia ceded her territory to the United States in 17S7 
reserving a small portion for the payment of some. State debts. The Connec- 
ticut claims were finally extinguished in 1S00. 

The French preferred a title to this whole territory, but they made no 
permanent settlements in Ohio. The country remained in the possession of 
t ie Indians till April 7, 17SS. when General Rufus Putnam, with a party from 
New England, planted a little colony at the mouth of the Muskingum, where 
Marietta now stands. 

Another settlement was made the following year, at Columbia, six miles 
above the present City of Cincinnati. Some French immigrants established 
themselves at Gallipolis in 1791. The country was much disturbed by Indian 
hostilities. After the disastrous campaign of General Warmer, in 1790, and 
t lat of General St. Clair in 1791—he being defeated, with great loss, in the 
western part of the State—many of the affrighted inhabitants removed to 
Kentucky. Butin 1795, th e savages were effectually subdued by General 
Wayne, and from this time we may date the unexampled prosperity of the 
State. 

In 17S1. Ohio, together with Indiana, etc., was placed under a territorial 
government by congress; the whole being called the Territory North- West of 
the Ohio. The first territorial legislature met at Cincinnati, in 1799, under 
General Arthur St. Clair, the fiist governor. For a long period the fame of 
thu region for richness of soil and amenity of climate drew multitudes from 
the Atlantic country. 

In 1S02, Ohio was erected into a State and admitted into the Union. The 
frst General Assembly met at Chillicothe in March, 1S03 and Edward Tiffin 
was elected governor. In 1S16 the capital was removed to Columbus. In this 
year the crops of New England were cut off, and the most extraordinary impulse 
was given to emigration. Not only families but whole villages departed for 
this land of promise. The great thorough-fares to the west were crowded 
with troops of people, loaded with their entire stock of furniture. Thus a 
State but eighty years old has grown to a population of 3,200,000, and whose 
larger cities rank with the great cities of the earth. During the rebellion Ohio 
furnished 317,000 troops to the Union army. 


EXPLANATION OF GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES, ETC. 


This chapter is not intended to be exhaustive, but it is believed 
much will be found here <of use and interest, and it is hoped that 




308 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


it will lead to a m ore searching study, not only of tne subject herein 
mentioned, but of the whole subject of geography in general. 

Pupils should be required to give the meanings of geograph¬ 
ical names when possible, and to explain the various current 
terms and expressions pertaining to the subject. To assist the 
pupil in this delightful work, is the object of this chapter. 

ORIGIN OF THE NAMES OF THE STATES. 

Maine was so called as early as 1623 from Maine, in France, of 
which Henrietta Maria, queen of England, was proprietor. 

New Hampshire was the name of the territory conveyed’ by- 
the Plymouth Company to Captain John Mason, by patent, No¬ 
vember 7, 1629, with reference to the patentee, who was governor 
of Portsmouth, in Hampshire, in England. 

Vermont was so called bv the inhabitants in their Declaration 
of Independence, January 19, 1777, from the French verts monts v 
“ Green Mountains.” 

Massachusetts was so called from Massachusetts bay, and that 
from a tribe of Indians in the neighborhood of Boston. The tribe 
is thought to have derived its name from the Blue Hills of Milton. 
“I have learnt,” says Rogers, “that Massachusetts was so -called 
from the Blue Hills.” 

Rhode Island was so called in 1664, in reference to the island of 
Rhodes, in Narragansett bay. 

Connecticut was so called from the Indian name of its princi¬ 
pal river. Connecticut is a Mocheakannen word signifying 3* long- 
river.” 

New York received its name in 1664. in reference to the Duke- 
of York and Albany, to whom this territory was granted by the- 
king of England. 

New Jersev was named in 1664 from the island of Jersey, 011 
the coast of France, the residence of Sir John Carteret, to whomt 
the territory was granted. 

Pennsylvania was so called in 1681, after William Penn, and! 
sylvia , meaning forest, Penn Sylvia signifying Penn forest. 

Delaware was so called in 1703, from Delaware bay. on which 
it lies, and which received its name from Lord De La Ware, who- 
died on the bay. 

Maryland received its name in honor of Henrietta Maria, queeni 
of Charles I in his patent to Lord Baltimore, June 30, 1632. 

Virginia was so called in 1584, after Elizabeth, the Virgin Queen 
of England. 

Carolina was so called by the French in 1564, in honor of King: 

Charles IX of France. It was afterwards divided into North and! 
South Carolina. 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


339 

Georgia was named in 1732, in honor of King George II. 

Alabama was so called in 1614from its principal river, meaning 
here we rest.” * 

Mississippi was so called in 1S00 from its western boundary 
1 he Mississippi is said to denote “ the river formed by the union 
or many. 

Louisiana derived its name in 1679, in honor of Louis XIV of 
France. 

Tennessee derived its name in 1796, from its principal liver. 
1 he word Ten-as-se is said to signify a carved spoon. 

Kentucky was named in 1 79 ^ is principal river. 

Illinois was so called in 1809, from its principal river. The 
word signifies “ the river ol men.” 

Indiana was so called is 1809, from the American Indians. 

Ohio is an Indian word meaning “ beautiful.” The State de¬ 
rived its name in 1791, from its southern boundary. 

Missouri obtained its name in 1804 from its chief river, an In¬ 
dian name meaning “muddy water.” 

Michigan was so called in 1S02, from the lake on its border. It 
is an Indian name, meaning “a river for fish.” 

Arkansas was so called in iSj 2 from its principal river. An 
Indian name. 

Florida was so called bv Juan Fonce de Leon, 1512, because it 
was discovered on Easter Sunday, (La pascua de flores, the pass- 
over of flowers.) 

Wisconsin was named from its principal river, an Indian name 
meaning “ will rushing river.” 

Iowa obtained its name from its chief river. It is also an Indian 
word signifying “the sleepy lines.” 

Minnesota is another Indian word meaning, “the whitish water.” 

California, a Spanish word, and named from an aim of the Pa¬ 
cific ocean. 

Texas, a Spanish word, applied to the Republic. Signifies 
•“ friends.” 

Kansas is an Indian name, meaning “the smoky water.” 

West Virginia, so called after Virginia. 

Nevada is a Spanish word, meaning “ white as snow.” 

Nebraska derived is name from the Nebraska river, an Indian 
name meaning “ flat water.” 

Dakota is an Indian word meaning “allied.” 

Colorado means red, colored, a name derived from the Indians. 
Oregon means “ river of the west.” Another Indian name. 


310 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


NAMES OF COUNTRIES. 

Europe signifies a country of white complexion; so named be¬ 
cause the inhabitants were of lighter complexion than those of 
Asia and Africa. 

Asia signifies between, or in the middle, from the fact that 
geographers place it in their books between Europe and Africa. 

Africa signifies the land of corn or ears. It was celebrated for 
its abundance of corn and all sorts of grain. 

Siberia signifies thirsty or dry—very characteristic. 

Spam a country of rabbits or conies. It was once so infested 
with these animals that it sued Augustus for an army to destroy 
them. 

Italy, a country of pitch, from its yielding great quantities of 
black pitch. Calabria, also, for the same reason. 

Gaul, modern France, signifies yellow haired, as yellow hair 
characterized its inhabitants. 

Hibernia is the utmost, a last habitation, for beyond this the 
Phoenicians never extended their voyages. 

Britain, the country of tin, great quantities being found on it and 
adjacent islands. The Greeks called it Albion, which signifies in 
the Phoenician tongue either white or high mountains, Irom the 
whiteness ot its shores or the high rocks on the western coast. 

Corsica signifies a woody place. 

Sardi nia signifies the footsteps of men which it resembles. 

Syracuse, bad favor, so called from the unwholesome marsh on 
which it stands. 

Rhodes, serpents or dragons, which it produced in ahjuv.dance. 

Sicily, the country of grapes. 

Scylla, the whirlpool of destruction. 

yEtna signifies a furnace, or dark and smoky. 


NICKNAMES OF TIIE STATES. 


Arizona is called “the Land of the Aztecs.” 

Arkansas is called the Bear State, and its inhabitants are Tooth-picks or 
Gophers. 

Alabama people aie called Lizards, from the great prevalence of this reptile. 
California is, on account of its mineral wealth, the Golden State, and its 
citizens Gold Hunters. It also called ‘-The American France.” 

Colorado people, from their migratory habits as miners, are called Rovers. 
The State is known as the “Sanitarium, and the Mint” 



A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


Bll 


T C T"^ CU ‘ !S ‘ h t Nutmeg State - 11 is also calIed Freestone State and the 
Land ot Steady Habits. The natives are designated Wooden Nutmegs. 

Delaware is the Blue lienor Diamond State; its inhabitants are called 
Muskrats. 


Florida is the Peninsular State, and the people who live in it are called Flv- 
up-the-Creeks. J 

Georgians are nicknamed Buzzards, The State is known as the Empire 
State of the South. 1 

Illinois has three names, Garden of the West, Sucker State, and Prairie 
State. Its people are called Suckers. 

Indiana is called the Hoosier State, inhabited by Hoosiers. 

Iowa is the Hawkeye State, and Hawkeyes dwell therein. 

Kansas is another Garden of the West,“The Granary of the World,” but its 
inhabitants are called Jay-hawkers. 

Kentucky, in words suggestive of strife in by-gone days, is the Dark and 
Bloody Ground; but the irrepressible fondness for fun having afterward cropped 
up, it became known as the Corn Cracker State; its people are Corn Crackers. 

Louisiana is called the Creole, and is inhabited by Creoles, or Cree-owls. 

Maine is the Lumber, or Pine Tree State, and they who live there are termed 
Foxes. 


Massachusetts is the Bay State, and its people Bay Staters. 

Michigan is the Lake State, or Wolverine State. Its inhabitants are Wolver¬ 
ines or Michiganders. 

Mississippi is the Bayou State, and its residents are recognized as Tadpoles. 

Marylanders are called Craw-thumpers. 

Minnesota residents are designated Gophers. 

Missourians have been stigmatized as Pukes. The State is known as the 
Iron State, 

Nebraska settlers are styled Bugeaters. It is the Black Water State. 

Nevada, it is said, on account of wild sage brushes and wilder hens that 
cluster in them, has now for its occupants the name of Sage Hens. 

New Jersey is called the Garden State, and its people the Blues, or Clam- 
Catchers. 


New Hampshire is the Granite State; the natives thereof are Granite Boys. 

New Mexico has recently become known as “The Old Curiosity Shop of 
America. 

New York is the Empire State, and the Excelsior State. The natives are 
termed Knickerbockers. 

North Carolina is the Old North State, or the Turpentine State; its natives 
are known as Tuckoes or Tarboilers. 

Ohio is the Buckeye State, and the people are termed Buckeyes. 


m 


A MANUAL OF GFOGlJAl'ftY: 


Oregon people are designated W l eb-feet. 

Pennsylvania is honorably designated the Key-stone 'Suite. I^inhabitants; 
ga by the'name Penamites or Leatherheads. 

Rhode Island is called Little RhodyV The*term Gunflihts is ; applied, to the 
natives. 

South Carolina is the Palmetto State, and its natives are Weasels? 

Tennessee is the Big Bend State, and is the home-of Whelps or CottOn-manies. 

Texas is poetically termed the Lone Star State> also the Long Horn Empire. 
It is tenanted bv Bull-heads. 

Vermont, as its name implies, is the Green Mountain State, -and the Greer* 
Mountain Boys is a name given to its natives. 

Virginia is the Old Dominion, the Mother of States, andalso the-Mother of 
Presidents. Beadles or Beagles is the characteristic title given to the natives. 

Wisconsin is the Badger State, and is the home*of the* Badgers. 

The National Park has become “The Northern Wonder Land.” 

Tile entire continent itself is Old Stars and Stripes, -Uncle Sam,- the New 
World, or Columbia. 

POPULAR NAMES OF OTHER PLAGES. 

Old Mexico is the “Coming Country.” 

Iceland; the “Land of Frost and Flame, so called because of its icy climate- 
and numerous volcanoes. 

“The Ringing Island,” a name given to England on account of the music 
of its many bells. 

“Belle France,” a popular name applied-to France, like “Merry England.” 

“Northern Bear,” a popular appellation of Russia; also called the “Northern 
Giant” in allusion to its immense size. 

“New Grenada,” the name by which, for * 3o;years, U. Si of Columbia was; 
formerly known. It was changed to its present name in 1S61. 

“Land o’ Cakes,” a name given to Scotland; because oat-meal cakes are a 
national dish, especially-among the poorer classes. / 

“Land of Wisdom,” a name given to Normandy, in Franee, because of the 
wise customs which have prevailed there and the skill in jurisprudence. 

“King of Waters,” a name sometimes applied to the Amazon river. 

“Key of the Gulf”—Cuba, so-called from its position at the entrance to the- 
Gulf of Mexico. 

“Lion of the Sea,” a name formerly given.to the Cape of Good Hope. 

“Lake of the Cat,” a name givento Lake Erie from-the time of its discovery 
ap to the 18th century. 

“Little England,” a popular name given to the Barbadoes by its inhabitants. 

“Lovers Leap,” (also called Cape Ducato,) a promontory on the southern 
coast of Santa Maura, one of the -Ionian Islands. Th z-po.etess Sapjio is said tc* 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY^ 31;] 

Jiave thrown herself into the sea from this point, because of the coldness with 
•which her lover reciprocated her ardent affections. 

“Bridge of Sighs.” a name popularly given to the passage way connecting 
the palace of the Doge and the state prison; condemned prisoners were 
transported over this way from the hall of judgment to the place of execution. 

“Cradle of Liberty,” Faneuil Hall of Boston. 

“Devil s Wall,” a name given to the old Roman wall separating England 
from Scotland; because of the strength of the cement and durability of the 
5 stone, it was thought to have been built by the Devil. The peasants in the 
vicinity are said to be in the habit of gathering fragments f-om this wall to be 
.put in the foundation of their own dwellings, supposing that this will give 
them durability and solidity. 

“Dixie,” “an imaginary land somewhere in the Southern States, celebrated 
in a popular Negro melody, as a perfect paradise of ease and enjoyment.” 
This term is often used to designate the whole South. 

“Gog and Magog,” popular names for two collossal statutes in the Guildhall, 
London. They are said to be of remarkable antiquity and have been the 
pride of London from time immemorial. They are 14 feet high. 

“Lot and Lot s Wife” are two remarkable columns of basaltic rock on the 
island of St. Helena, 197 and 160 feet high respectively. 

“Egypt,” a popular designation of the southern part of Illinois; so named be 
cause the inhabitants had the general reputation of being extremely ignorant,— 
an allusion to the three days of thick darkness over Egypt in the time of Moses. 

“Salt River,” “an imaginary river up which defeated political parties are 
supposed to be sent to oblivion” (see Webster’s Unabridged Dictionary.) 

“Holy Land,” a name given to Palestine, the country for a long time the 

home of God’s chosen people. 

# 

“Holy Island,” a nanfie formerly given to Ireland on account of the great 
number of saints dwelling there. 

“Highlands of Never Sink,” the first land seen by those coming into New 
York on ships; they are along the coast from Sandy Hook to Raritan Bav. 

“The Palisades” form a picturesque wall of rock about 400 feet high, just above 
New York, on the New Jersey bank of the Hudson river, for 20 miles. 

“New France,” the old name of Canada. 

“Niagara of the Eastern Continent,” Victoria Falls on the Zambeze river. 

“Mother of Rivers,” Colorado. 

“The Iron Gate” is a series of rapids and whirlpools in the narrows of the 
Danube, 4 miles below Orsova. The defile is 7,500 feet Jong, 650 feet wide, 
with a fall of 16 feet, and a rapidity of 10 feet a second. 

“Mason and Dixon’s Line,” the southern boundary line of Pennsylvania, de¬ 
signed to separate this State from the slave-holding States of Maryland and 
Virginia. It was run by Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon, two English 



314 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


mathematicians and surveyors, in the years 1763-67. The term came into 
general use through Randolph during the heated debates on excluding slavery 
from Missouri. 


“Garden of Italy” is Sicily. 

“The Boiling Mountain” is Mt. Pichincha. Its crater is 2,500 feet deep 
the deepest in the world. 

“Queen of the Antilles.” Cuba, because of her valuable productions, fine 
harbors, etc. 


“John O’ Groat House” is the name of a site once occupied by a cottage, 


and is nearly the most northern point of Scotland. Perrys go between this j 
place and the Orkney Islands. 


POPULAR NAMES OF CITIES. 


Boston, the mod’n Athens, or the Hub. 
Cairo, City of Victory. 

Baltimore, the Monumental City. 

New Orleans, the Crescent City. 
Indianapolis, the Railroad City. 
Nashville, the City of Rocks. 

San Francisco, the Golden City. 
Keokuk, the Gate City. 

Louisville, the Fal's City. 

Pittsburgh, the Smoky City. 

Buffalo, Queen City of the Lakes. 
Sodom & Gomorrah,Cities of the Plain. 
Rome, Queen of Cities. 

Boston, City of Notions. 

Lowell, City of Spindles. 

Athens, City of the “Violet Crown.” 


Philadelphia, the Quaker City. 

New York, Gotham, or Empire City|[ A 
Cincinnati, the Queen City. 

Detroit, the City of Straits. 
*Cleveland, the Forest City. 

St. Louis the Mound City. 

Hannibal, the Bluff City. 

Aberdeen, the Granite City. 

Dayton, the Gem City. 

Alexandria, the Delta City. 

Brooklyn, the City of Churches. 
Edinburgh. “Northern Athens.” 
London, City of Masts. 

Jerusalem, City of Peace. 

Baalbec or Heliopolis,City of the Sun. 
Limerick,Citv of the“ViolatedTreatv.^ 


Washington, the City of Magnificent Distances. 


^Portland, Maine, had been known as the “Forest City” until July 4th, i866 r 


when one-third of it was burned. The fire was occasioned by a fire-cracker 
carelessly thrown in a bunch of shavings in a cooper shop, by a hoy. 

Patterson, N. J., is sometimes called the “Lyons of America,” because it 
has more extensive silk manufactures than any other city in theUnited States. 


Quebec is called the “Giberaltar of America,” because of its strong fortress. 


“The Eternal City,” a popular and very ancient title given to Rome, fabled 
to have been built under the directions of the gods. 


i; 


“Little Paris,” a popular name sometimes given to Milan of Italy, from its 
resemblance in gayety to tire French capital. 

“The Maiden Town,” a name given to Edinburgh, from a Monkish fable 
that it was, at one time the residence of the daughters of Pictish Kings, sent ■ 
there for protection in times of war. 

“Nameless City,” Ancient Rome; so called because it had an older and 
mysterious name which no one dared to pronounce, under penalty of death. I 

“Bride of the Sea,” a popular designation of Venice, in illusion to the mar¬ 
riage of the Adriatic and the Doge. 

“City of Homes,’’Philadelphia,because of the abundance of domestic comforts. 













A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


as 


♦derivation and signification of geographical names. 


Aar, the river. 

Aberdeen, at the mouth of the Dee. 
Abyissnia, a mixed race or people. 

Auen, paradise. 

Adirondack, he eats bark. 

Adnanople, city of Adrian. 

Adriatic, sea of Adrian. 

Afghanistan, the country of Afghans. 
Agnas Calientes, warm springs. 

Agulhas, “needles ” from its pointed shape. 
Aix-la-Chapelle, waters of the chapel. 

A land, water-land. 

Albany, Celtic name of Scotland, (named 
in honor ot the' Duke of York and Al¬ 
bany. 

Albion, white island. 

Albuquerque, (L at.) alba , white, and quer- 
cu*, oak—white oak. 

Aleutian, a bald rock. 

Algies, the island. 

Alleghany, river of the Alligewi. 

Almaden, the mine. 

Alps, hills white with snow. 

AItai, golden. 

Altamaha, place of the village. 

Amazon, boat destroyer. 

Amsterdam, the dam, or dike of Amstel. 


Andes, copper, or metal in general. 
Anglesy, Englishman’s island. 
Androscoggin, a name changed in compli¬ 
ment to Governor Andros, from Ainas* 
kogegan, “fish spearing.” 
Annapolis.named in honor of Queen Anna. 
Antigua, old, ancient. 

Antwerp, at the wharf. 

Arabia, land of sunset, land of wanderers, 
i Aral, inland, (sea.) 

; Archangel, named after Michael, the arch¬ 
angel. 

Arizona, sand hills. 

Ascutnev, lire mountains. 

Arkansas, from Kattxax and arc, a bow. 
i Astrachan, the district of a khan. 

Asia, east, lying between. 

Atchafalaya. lost water. 

, Athabasco, swampy. 

Athens, city of Minerva. 

I Atlantic, the sea beyond Mount Atlas. 
Auckland, oak land, 

, Australia, southern. 

• Austria, eastern empire. 

Azores, a hawk. 

I Baal bee, city of the sun. 

Balearic, from ba/lein , to throw,, because 
; the inhabitants were noted slingers. 
Babelmandeb, gate of tears. 

Babylon, court of Bel us. 

Balize, a corruption of Wallace, its discov¬ 
erer. 

Baltimore, named after Lord Baltimore. 
Baikal, rich lake. 

Baltic, abounding in straits. 

Bangor, high choir. 

Batavia, low plain. 

Baton Rouge, red staff. 

Ba\ aria, the country of the Boii.- 
Belgrade, white city. 

Bellefontninc, tine fountain. 

Belleisle, beautiful island. 

Bergen, mountains. 

Berlin, uncultivated land.. 


i Lei mud as. named after their dissocc*x?r 
Burmudez. 

Berne, country of bears, 

Biscay, forest. 

Birmingham, “the broom place dwellintr 
Blanco, white. 

Bojador, round cape. 

Bokhara, treasury of sciences.. 

Bombay, good harbor. 

Bordeaux, border of water. 

I Borneo, land. 

Bosporus, ox-ford. 

Boston, originally St. Botolph’stower. 
Botany Lay, so named from the numerons 
I plants. 

[ Bothnia, deep sea. 

Brazil, from the Spanish for dye. 

Braz d’Or, golden arm. 

Brest, groat port. 

Bristol, the place of a bridge. 

Bucharest, city of enjoyment. 

Buda. named from Buda brother of Attil- 
i lia. 

Buena Ksperango, good hope. 

Buena Vista, tine view. 

Buenos Ayres, a good air. 

Bushire, lather of cities. 

Cadiz, shut in. 

Cairo, the victorious. 

Calcutta, temple of Kali, (goddessof time.} 
Cambridge, bridge of the Cam. 

Cameroons, shrimp. 

Canada, a collection of lints. 

Canandaigua, a chosen spot. 

Canary, a dog, (from the Lat.canis. 
Canaveral, cane plantation. 

Canton, large east city. 

Carmel, vine of God; orchard. 

Casco, era ne. 

Caspian, named after Caspii. 

Catskill, place of panthers and lynx 
Cayuga, long lake. 

Caucasus, white mountains. 

Ceylon, island of lions. 

Chaleurs, hay of heats. 

Champlain, named from its discovre^en. 
C hatnplain. 

Chatham, village cottages. 

Chattahoochee, painted stone. 

Chautauqua, a foggy place. 

Chaudiere, a boiler. 

Chesapeake, great waters 
Chesuneook. great goose lake. 

Chili, land of snow. 

Chimborazo, chimney. 

C h iea go, skunk w i Id on ion. 

China, the middle nation. 

Christiania, named after its founder, 
Circassia, the country of those who ent otf 
heads. 

Cleveland, cliff-land. 

Cobi, desert 
Coblentz, confluence. 

Cologne, a colony. 

Colorado, red colored. 

Connecticut, upon the long river— 
Copenhagen, merchants* haven- 
Cork, a marsh. 

Cornwall, horn of Gaul. 

Corpus Christi, body of Christ- 
Corrientes, currents. 













316 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


'DERIVATION AND SIGNIFICATION OF GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES. 


Costa Itica. rich coast. 

C umberland, a land of hollows. 

Cuzco, a novel. 

■Cyclades, circling islands. 

Dakota, allied. 

Dantzic, village of the Danes. 

Danube, low meadow. 

Darfur, country of the JFooriajis. 

Deccean, the south. 

Delgado, delicate, sharp. 

Delhi, quicksand. 

Denmark, low country. 

Des Moines, on the mounds. 

Desaguadero, an outlet. 

Dnieper, the upper river 
Dniester, the lower river. 

Dover, a ferry. 

Dominica, Sunday, named from the day of 
its discovery. 

Drontheim, home oi the throne. 

Dublin, black pool. 

Dunkirk, church of the Downs. 

Dundee, castleof the Tay. 

Dwina, the double river.* 

Ebro, foaming or warm water.,. 

Ecuador, equator. 

Edinburgh, castle of Edwin, 

Elba, white. 

Eugland, land of the angles. 

Erie, wild cat. 

Erzeroum, land of Rome. 

Espirito Santo, Holy Spirit. 

Esquimaux, eaters of ataw flesh. 

Ethiopia, land of burnt-faced people 
Euphrates, to make glad. 

Europe, the west, (from Asia.) j 

Faroe, sheep islands. 

Finisterre, land’s end, (finis end. and terra 
land.) 

Florida, blooming. 

Florence, a flower. 

Fogo, tire. 

Fond du Lac, end of lake. 

Formosa, beautiful 
France, free country. 

Frio, cold. 

Funen, beautiful country. 

Galapagos, land of turtles. 

Galway, western way. 

Canges, flowing through earth to heaven. 
Garonne, rapid river. 

Germany, "war men.” ( Wehrmnei.) 

Ghaut, a gate, a mountain pass. 

Gibraltar, (Arab. Jabel alTarik) mountain 
of Tarik. 

•Glasgow, dark ravine. 

Gracias a Dios, thanks to God. 

Greenwich, green village. 

Guadalqwiver, the great river. 

Guadalonpe, a she wolt. 

Hague,.a grove, or hedge. 

Hainan, south of the sea. 

Havana, the harbor. 

Havre de Grace, harbor of grace, 

Havti, high land (ImL) 

Hell Gate, a corruption of the Dutch Ilorll 
Gatt, Whirlpool strait. 

Henlopcn, run in. 

Hernluit, protection of the Lord. 

Himalaya, abode of snow. 

Hindoostan. land of the blacks. 

Hispaniola, little Spain i 


- 


Hoang IIo, yellow river. 

Hoboken, a tobacco pipe. 

Holland, hollow land. 

Hong-Kong, valley of fragrant waters. 
Housatouic, the river beyond the lulls. 
Humber, roaring. (See Webster.) 
Iceland, land of ice. 

Illinois, river of men. 

Indus, the sea, 

Iowa, the sleepy ones. 

Ireland, the western isle. 

Irrawaddy, the great river. 

Isle of man, Rocky island. 

Jamaica, a country abounding in spring 
Japan, a land of sun rise. 

Java, rice. 

Jersey, Caesar’s isle 
Jerusalem, vision of peace. 

Jutland, land of giants. 

Katahdin, the highest place. 

Kearsarge, the high place. , 
Kalamazoo. (See Webster.) 

Kennebec, long lake. 

Kentucky, at the head of a river. 

Kizil Irmak, redriver. 

Kizil Room, red sand. 

Kordofan, the white land. 

Kurile Islands, the road of sea-weeds. 
Laalaud, low land. 

Lad rones, robbers. 

La Paz, peace. 

La Plata, silver. 

Lebanon, the white mountain, 
jueipsic, lime trees. 

Lemberg, city of the lion. 

Liberia, free st ate. 

Lombardy, long beards. 

Lvon, hill of the raven. 

M acao, entrance to the bay. 

Madeira, woody. 

Madras, university town. 

Majorca, the greater. 

Maladetta, accursed. 

Maldives, thousand islands. 

Manhattan, the town of the island. 
Manitoulon, spirit islands. 

Margarita, a pearl. 

Marmora, marble. 

Melbourne, mill stream. 

Merrimae, swift water. 

Memphremagog, land of abuudance. 
Memphis, temple of the good God. 
Mexico, place of J fexitle, the Aztec god 
war. 

Milan, harvest full. 

Milwaukee, rich land. 

Mille lacs, thousand lakes. 

Minnehaha, laughing water. 

Mohawk, men eaters. 

Monadnock. the spirits place. 

Moutery, king’s mountains. 

Montevideo, I see a mountain. 
Montpelier, mountains of the young girls 
Montreal, royal mountain. 

Munich, monks. 

Muskingum, moese-eve river. 

Nankin, southern capital. 

Naples, new city. 

Nazareth, separated. 

Naze, noze. promontorv, 

N e gropo nt, Id ac.k kra dge 


-t; 


f'n 

n 


is 

:l: 


• 1 T 

1 
















A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


317 



DERIV ATION AND SIGNIFICATION OF'GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES. 


-: -- 

Ni-ufchatel, new castle. 

Niagara, neck of water. 

Nicobar, nine islands. 

Niplion, fountain of light. 

Niger .black. 

Norfolk, northern people. 

Norwalk, the mhhile land. 

Notre Dante, Our Lady. 

Nottingham, the home of caveras. 

Nova Scotia. New Scotland. 

Nubia, gold country. 

Nyanza, the water. 

Ocntulgee. the rivers. . 

Oconee, water course. 

Ohio, the beautiful river. 

Oneida, the people of the beacon stone. 
Oporto, the port. 

Oregon, river of the west. 

Orinoco, coiled serpent. 

Orkneys, northern islands. 

Osage, the strong. 

Ottawa, the traders. 

'Ouse, water. 

Palermo, convenient harbor. 

Palestine, the land of wanderers. 

, Papua, frizzled hair. 

Para, father of waters. 

.Parana, the sea. 

Patagonia, land of the large feet. 

| Pei-Ho, white river. 

| Pekin, northern capital. 

Pe-Ling. northern mountain chains. 
Penobscot, at the rock. 

Perdido, lost. 

Piscatauua, great deep river. 

Pisgah, height, hill. 

Poland, flat. 

Polynesia, many islands. 

Port an Prince, port of the prince. 

Porto Rico, rich port. 

Potomac, place of the burning pine. 
Poughkeepsie, pleasant harbor. 

Prussia, next to Russia. 

Quebec, take, care of the rock. 

Quinehaug, long pond. 

Rappahannock, river of quick rising water. 
Reikiavik. steam town. 

: Rcstigouche, river which divides like the 

hand. 

Reyes, kings. 

i Rio Janeiro, river of January. 

Rio Negro, black river. 

Rome, strength. 

Sahara, a desert 
dalem, peace. 

San Domingo, holy Sabbath. 

Sandusky, cold .spring. 

San Salvador. Holy Savior. 

Santiago, St. James. 

Sadne, placid river. 

Saragossa, city of ( sesar Augustus. 

♦Many of th:;s3 are taken from Webster’ 


I 

Saratoga, place of the miraculous waters 
in a rock. 

Saskatchawan. swift current. 

Sehaffhansen, sheep-houses. 

Schenectady, river valley beyond the pines. 
Schoodic, burnt lands. 

Schuylkill, hidden creek. 

Sebastopol, city of Augustus. 

Senegamhia. Detween Senegal and Gambia, 
shanghai, supreme court, 
shannon, old river. 

Sheboygan, the river that comes out of the- 
ground. 

Sicily, cut off. 

Singapore, lions. 

sknger Rack, crooked strait oi skagen. 
Skancateles, very long lake, 
sneehatten, snow cap. 
smyrn a, myrrh. 

Soudan, land of blacks. 

Spitsbergen, peaked mountain. 

Sporades, scattered, 
staffa, isle ol Steps. 

Stockholm, island formed by piles, 

Sweden, land of the Suevi. 

Tallahasse, old town. 

Tallapoose, swift water. 

Tananarivou, city of a thousand towns, 
Taurus, a mountain. 

Terre Haute, high land. 

Thian shan, celestial mountains. 

Tigris, an arrow. 

Toledo, generations, families. 

Toronto, oak trees rising from the lake. 
Tortugas, tortoises, 

Trebizond, trapezium shaped. 

Trinidad, trinity. 

Tripoli, three cities. 

Umhagog. clear lake, shallow. 

Ural, a girdle. 

Utrecht, beyond the passage (of the Rhine.) 
Valencia, strong, powerful. 

Valparaiso, vale of paradise. 

Venezuela, little Venice. 

Vermejo, virmillion. 

Vienna, dwelling place for the Vends. 

Villa Rica, rich city. 

Wabash, a cloud driven by an equinoctial 
wind. 

Wachusett, the mountain. 

Wales, west country. 

Washita, male deer. 

Wheeling, place of a head. 

Winnipeg, turbid water. 

Winnipiseogee, beautiful lake of the high 
land. 

Winooski, beautiful stone river. 
Yang-tse-Kiang. son of the ocean. 
Zanguebar, sea-coast of the Negroes. 
Zealand, sea-land. 

Zityder Zee, south sea. 

Unabridged Dictionary. 


IIOW LAKE ITASCA WAS NAMED. 

Years ago it was discovered that a certain lake which had long 
been regarded as the source of the Mississippi, had no claim to 
this hoi'or. When the true source was d.iscqverQd, it was pro- 














: 318 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


’•poised to give it a new name. Two latin words were suggested, 

4 " Veritas and “caput,” meaning true head. But it was thought 
that the name (ver-i-tas-ca-put) was too long, and so it was short- I 
r sued by striking off the first and last syllables, and thus left Itasca. 

Gibraltar was so called in commemoration of the leader of the 
wvj>aracens, Jabzl lank, (the mountains of Tarik) who landed in / 
Spain, A. D. 710. 

^ u-ca-tan, an Indian word meaning, “ what do you say ? ” This 
was their reply to the Spaniards, when asked the name of the 
• country. 

Cape Horn was so named by Shouten, its discoverer. in 1616, 
r 5 * honor of his birthplace, Hoorn, in the Netherlands. 


STATISTICS, ETC. 


LS 01 J 13 of these figui'83 ware obtained after the body of this manual had gone through 
press, and while soma of them do not agree with those previously given, I thought** 
t< i-est to give the latest here.l 0 


The following have been taken with great care from the most : 
reliable sources. K f 


SALARIES. 

President of the United States—<00,000 per year, 
rice President of the United States— $8,000 per year. 

Each Member of the Cabinet—$8,003 per year, 
v Chief Justice—$10,.300 per year. 

\ Associate Justice—$6,000 yer year. 

United States Senator—$5,000 and mileage per year. ' 

1 isited States Representative—$5,030 and milage per year. 

..£ Ministers to Foreign Countries- $8,030 to $17,500 

CONGRESSIONAL DISTRICTS OF OHIO. 

, First and Second Districts—Hamilton countv, 
i Third—Preble, Miami, and Montgomery. 

. & earth—Darke, Shelby, Mercer, Auglaize, and Allen. 

- ^ ifth Putnam, Hancock, Wyandot, Seneca and Crawford. 

Sixth—NY ood, Fulton, Williams, Defiance, Henry, Paulding and Van Wert. 
■ Seventh—Green, Clermont, Warren, and Butler. 

Eighth ( lark, Pickaway, ( hampaign, Logan and Madison. 

Ninth Knox, Delaware, Morrow, Union, Marion and Hardin. 

Tenth—Sandusky, Ottawa, Lucas and Erie. 

.(Eleventh—.Scioto, Adams, Lawrence, Gallia, Jackson and Vinton. 

Tii elfth Clinton, Highland, Fayette, Brown, Ross and Pike. 

"Thirteenth—Perry, Hocking, Fairfield and Franklin. 

. TFeurteenth Richland, Ashland, Huron and Lorain. 

















A‘ MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY 


319 






Fifteenth—Meigs, Athens, Morgan, Washington and Monroe, 
sixteenth—Licking, Muskingum, Coshocton, Holmes and Tuscarawas. 
Se\enteenth Belmont, Harrison, Jefferson, Guernsey and Noble. 
Eighteenth Carroll, Columbiana, Mahoning and Stark. 

Nineteentn—Portage, Lake, Geauga, Ashtabala and Trumbull. 
Twentieth—Summit, Medina, Wayne, and a part of Cuyahoga. 
Twenty-first—The rest of Cuyahoga county. 


PRINCIPAL CEREAL PRODUCTIONS OF THE UNITED STATES. 


From the Official report of the Tenth Census, 18S0. 


[States and 
Territories. 

INDIAN COR> 

WHEAT. 

OATS. 

BARLEY. 

RYE. 

BUCK¬ 

WHEAT. 

Bushels. 

Bushels. 

Bushels. 

Bushels. 

Bushels. 

Bushels. 

Alabama,. 

25,451,27* 

1,529,651 

3,639,657 

5,281 

28.402 

363 

Arizona,_ ... 

84,74t 

13(5. (25 

5(54 

289.051 

. 


Arkansas,. 

2I,lo(5,4U 

1,2(59.781 

2.219.822 

1,952 

22,38(5 

548 

California.. 

1,998,82;' 

29,017,707 

1,341,27 J 

12,579,561 

181.681 

22.307 

< olorado,. 

455,915s 

1,425,0(4 

640,900 

107,lie 

19,4(55 

111) 

Connecticut, 

1,880,421 

38,742 

1,009,701 

12.28( 

310, i 33 

137.593 

' Dakota,. 

2,000,8154 

2,880,281 

2,217,132 

277.424 

21.359 

2,521 

Reluwaic,.. .. . 

8,894,2154 

1,175,272 

378,508 

52* 

5,953 


Pis. Columbia,. 

29,75C 

(5,402 

7,440 


3,704 


Horida,... . 

3,174,234 

(22 

468.112 

210 

2 <((>5 


Georgia,. 

28,202,01s 

3.159,771 

5,548,743 

18. (5(5'.' 

101,716 

402 

Idaho,. 

l(i,4()s 

540,589 

462,23(5 

274 750 

1 **11 


Illinois,. 

825,792^481 

51,11 O'502 

63,189.200 

1,229^52.3 

3,121,785 

178,859 

Indiana,. 

115,482,300 

47,284,853 15.599.518 

5182.835 

303,105 

89,709 

Iowa,.... 

275,024,247 

31,154,20: 

50,610,591 

4.022,600 

1,518,60*. 

1(56,895 

Kansas,. 

105,729,325 

17,324,141 

8,180,385 

300,273 

413,181 

24.421 

Kentucky...,. .. 

72,852,263 

11,356,11: 

4,580,738 

486,326 

668,050 

51,5(42 

Louisiana,. 

9.5M6,1<89 

5,034 

229,840 


1,018 


Maine,.. 

960,63., 

665,713 

2,265.575 

242,185 

2(5,398 

382,701 

Maryland,_ 

1 5,9*58,533 

8,001,864 

1,794,872 

6,097 

2-S.067 

13(5,6(57 

Massachusetts,... 

1,797,595 

15,7(58 

(545,159 

80,12s 

213.71(5 

67,117 

Michigan,. 

32,4-51.453 

85,532,543 

18,190,793 

1,204,816 

294,918 

413,062 

Minnesota,. 

4,831.741 

84,601,030 

2.5,382,158 

2,972,965 

215,245 

41,756 

Mississippi,. 

21,340.80 

218,890 

1,959.620 

348 

5,134 


Missouri,. 

202,485,723 

24,96(5,(527 

20,(570.958 

123 031 

535,43(5 

57,(540 

Montana,.. 

5,649 

469,688 

9(0,915 

39,970 

430 

437 

Nebraska, . 

65,450,135 

13,847,007 

6,555,875 

1,744,686 

224,348 

17,5(52 

Nevada,. 

12,891 

69,298 

18(5, Mil) 

51 3 ,4 • 



New Hampshire, 

1,350,248 

169,316 

1.017,(520 

17,811 

3 J ,638 

94,090 

New Jersey,. 

11,150,705 

1,901,739 

3,710,573 

4.091 

$•49.0(54 

4(5(5,414 

New Mexico, 

633,78(5 

70(5,(54! 

15(5,527 

50,053 

240 


New fork, . 

25,875,480 

11,587,76(5 

37.575,506 

7,792,0(52 

2,634.690 

4,461,200 

North Carolina,. 

28,0 9,839 

3,397,393 

3.838.0 58 

2,421 

285,1(50 

44,(5(58 

*)liio, . 

111,877,124 

46,014.869 

28,6(54,505 

1,707,129 

880,221 

280,2251 

Oregon,. 

J 26,8(52 

7,480.010 

4,385,(550 

920,977 

13.3U5 

6,215 

Pennsylvania, 

45;82i,531 

19,462,405 

33,841,439 

43,1(H) 

8,683,(521 

3,598,32(5 

Rhode island,. 

372,967 

240 

159,339 

17.7 83 

12,5197; 

1,254 

•South Carolina, 

11,767,099 

962,358 

2,715,505 

16,257 

27.049 


Tennessee,....... 

62,764,429 

7,331,335 

4,722,190 

80,019 

150,4:9 

33,434 

•Texas,. . 

29,065,172 

2,567,760 

4,893,359 

72.78(5 

25.399 

535 

Utah,. . 

1(53.342 

1,169,199] 

418,082 

217,141 

9.605 


Vermont. 

2,014,271 

837,257 

3,742,282 

2(57 J»25 

71,738 

356,(518 

Virginia. . 

29,106,661 

7,822,504 

5,333,181 

14,223 

324.431 

13(5,004 

Washington . 

39,183 

1,921,822 

1,571,706 

5(56,537 

7.124 

2,45*8 

West V irginia, 

14,090,609 

4,001,711 

1,908,505 

9,740 

113,181 

285.2543 

Wisconsin, . 

34,230,579 

24,884.689 

32,905.320 

5,043,118 

2,298,513 

299.107 

W vominir... 


4,674 

22.512 


78 








Total,. 

1,754,861,535 

439,479,505 

407,85.3,999! 

113,49.5 

19,881,595 

11.817,327 













































































320 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY* 


THE SIX GREAT POWERS. 


Great Britain, United States, Germany, Russia, France, »n<r 
Austria. 


THE SIX LARGEST ISLANDS. 


Greenland, 760,000 sq. miles. 
Borneo, 286,000 sq. miles. • 
New Guinea, 250,000 sq. miles. 


Madagascar, 230,000 sq. miles 
Sumatra, 170,000 sq. miles. 
Great Britain, 89,000 sq. miles. 


THE FIVE MOST POPULOUS COUNTRIES. 

Russia, 85,000,000. China, 435,000,000. Germany, 45,500,000 
British Empire, 240,000,000. United States, 50,000,000. 


THE FIVE COUNTRIES HAVING THE LARGEST AREA. 

Russian Empire, 85,000,000 square miles. 

British Empire, 7,890,000 square miles. 

United States, 3,657,000 square miles. 

Chi nese Empire, 4,560,000 square miles. 

Brazil, 3,288,000 square miles. 


THE SIX LARGEST LAKES. 


Superior 32,000 square miles. 
Michigan 22,000 square miles. 
Albert 28,000 square miles. 


Huron 21,000 square miles. 
Victoria 30,000 square miles. 
Balkash 17,000 square miles. 


POPULATION OF THE SIX LARGEST CITIpS. 


London 3,832,000. New York 1,200,000. 

Paris 1,989,000. Canton 1,500,000. 


Vienna 1,021,00a. 
Berlin 1,122,000. 


COUNTRIES HAVING MOST MILES OF RAILROAD. -1SS2. 


United States 117,717. Germany 21,565. France 15,484. 

Great Britain and Ireland 28,468. " Russia 14,613. 

THE SIX MOST DENSELY POPULATED COUNTRIES. 

Belgium, 4S8 per square mile. China, 261 per square mile. 

Holland, 31S per square mile. Japan, 247 per square mile. 

England, 400 per square mile. Italy, 246 per square mile, 

THE GRAND DIVISIONS IN THE ORDER OF THEIR DENSITY 

OF POPULATION. 


Europe, 85 per square mile. 
Asia, 48 per square mile. 
Africa, 19 per square mile. 


Oceanica, 9 per square mile. 

North America, S per square mile. 
South America, 4 per square mile. 




A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY 


321 




THE COUNTRIES HAVING THE LARGEST STANDING ARMIES. 

Russsia, 840,000 Germany, 427,000 Austria 292,000 

China, 700,000 France, 503,000 Italy, 737 '°°° 

G’t Britain, 238,000—naval force, 61,000United States, 25,000 

CENSUS OF MANUFACTURES IN THE UNITED STATES. 

From the Oflleial Returns of the Tenth Census, 1880. 


States and Territories. 

Num¬ 
ber of 
Estab¬ 
lish¬ 
ments. 

Capital. 

Number 
of hands 
em¬ 
ployed. 

Value of 
products. 

Alabama,. 

2,070 

Do llarn 
9.008,008 

10,019 

Dollar*. 

13,505.604 

Ar:zona,.. . 

(jb 

272,000 

2,953.13. 

220 

615,66o 
0,750,159 

Aiki nsis, . 

1,202 

4,550 

C.ililorniu,. 

5,885 

01,243,784 

43,799 

110,227,973 

Colorado,.. 

509 

4,311,714 

5,074 

14,200,159 

Connecticut, .. 

4,488 

251 

120,480,275 

771,428 

112,915 

808 

185,086,211 

2,873,970 

Dakota.. . 

Delaware. 

740 

15,655,822 

12,038 

20,514,438 

District of Columbia,. 

971 

f,552,520 

7,140 

11,882,310 

Florida,.. 

420 

3,210,080 

5,504 

5,540,448 

Georgia,. 

3,593 

20,072,410 

21,875 

31)^44 4,4-iS 

Idaho, .. 

102 

077,215 

388 

1,271,317 

I llinois,. 

14,540 

140,052,000 

144,727 

414,804,073 

1 ndiana,. 

11,198 

05,742,902 

69,508 

148,000,411 

Iowa,. . 

0,921 

33,987,880 

28,372 

71,045,920 

Kansas, . 

2,808 

11,192,315 

12,( Hi 4 

30,790,212 

Kentucky, .• . 

^328 

45,813,039 

37,391 

75,483,377 

Louisiana. 

1,553 

11,402,408 

12,107 

24.205.193 

Maine,. 

4,481 

49 984,571 

52,949 

79,825,393 

Maryland,. 

0,787 

58,735,084 

74,942 

100,771,393 

M assachusetts,. . 

14,352 

303,800.185 

352,255 

631.511,484 

Michigan,. 

8,873 

92,930,909 

77,591 

150,092,025 

Minnesota.. 

3,493 

31,004,811 

21.212 

76,005,190 

M ississinpi,. 

1,479 

4,727,000 

5,827 

7,495,802 

Missouri. 

8,51 2 

72,507,844 

03,995 

105,384,005 

Montana,. 

190 

899,390 

578 

1,835,807 

Nebraska, . 

1,403 

4,881,150 

4,793 

12,027,336 

Nevada. . 

184 

1,323,300 

i 

2,179,020 


3,181 

51,112,203 

48,831 

73,978,028 

New Jersey, . 

7,128 

100,220,593 

120,038 

254,375,230 

New Mexico,. 

144 

403,275 

557 

1,284,840 

New York,. 

42,789 

514,240,575 

531,473 

1,080,638,690 

North Carolina,. 

8,802 

13.045,039 

18,109 

20,084.237 

Ohio,. . 

20,099 

188,939,014 

188,009 

348.305,890 

Oregon, ... 

1,075 

0,284,256 

3,424 

10,879,982 

Pennsylvania,. 

31,225 

474.499,993 

387,112 

744,748.045 

Rhode* Island, . . 

2,205 

75,575,943 

02,878 

104,163,021 

South Carolina,. . 

2,078 

11,205.894 

22.128 

10.738,008 


4.320 

20,092,845 

22,445 

37,074.880 

Texas, .. 

2,990 

9,245,501 

12,159 

20,719,928 


040 

2.050,057 

2,495 

4,324.992 

Vermont,.. .. 

2,874 

28,205,224 

17,540 

31,354,300 

Virginia, . . 

5,710 

20,908,990 

40,184 

51,810,092 

Washington,. 

'Vest Virginia,. 

Wisconsin,.... . 

201 

3,202,497 

1,147 

3,250,134 

2.375 

13,883,390 

14,35 

22.S07.120 

7,074 

73,821.802 

57,109 

128,245,480 

Wyoming, . 

Ol 

304,078 

39 i 

898,494 

Total UnitedStates. 

253,840 

2,790,223,500 

2,738,930 

5,309,007,700 


RAILROADS OF THE WORLD, 1SS3. 

North America, 117.800 South America, 7,316 

Europe, 105,895 Asia, I 4 ? I 3 I 

Africa, 3,09$ Australia, 5,592 

Total, ' 264,826 































































322 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY, 

\ 


Mississippi, 
Yangtse Kiang 




THE SIX LONGEST RIVERS WITH THE AREAS OF THEIR BASINS, 

Area of basin in sq. miles. 
1,197.500 
950,000 
1.425,000 
2,800,000 
S00.000 
518,000 

HEIGHT OF THE SIX HIGHEST PEAKS. 

Everest,'29,000 feet. Dahwalagiri, 26.826 feet. 

Dapsang, 28,279 ^ eet - Nandi Devi. 25,662 feet. 

Kanchinjinga, 28,156. Smata, 24.812 feet, 

THE SIX MOST COMMERCIAL NATIONS, iSSt. 


Amazon, 
Niger, 
Missou ri, 


Length in miles. 
4,200 
3,000 
4,000 

4 GOO 
3,000 
2.908 


Great Britain, 
United States, 
France, 

German Empire, 
Russia, 

Austria, 


EXPORTS. 

$1,432,072,000 

921,781.193 

680,129,800 

705.375.000 

410.467,000 


IMPORTS, 

$2 .056.148.OCO 

753 . 24 O. IOO 

« 981,500.400 
973.200,0c O 
395.467 COO 
302.900,000 


220,994,000 

The most northern town in the world is IJpernavik; the most 
southern town is Punta Arenas, 

Number of counties in the United States, 2,347. 

Number of postoffices in 1SS2, 46,231. 

Number of miles of telegraph in iSS2, 144,000'of the world, 
551,coo. 

National debt, 1882, $1,918,000,000. 

r i t. *f • 

YARDS IN THE UNITED STATES. 


.CjV c 

NAVY 


n 

O 

4 

s 

6 

1 

7 

8 

9 


Brooklyn Navv Yard, Brooklyn, N. Y. 

Charleston Navy Yard, Boston, Mass. 

Gosport Navv Yard, near Norfolk. Va. 

Kittery Navy Yard, opposite Portsmouth, N. CL 
League Island Navy h ard, 7 miles below Philadelphia, 
Mate Island Navy Laid, near San Francisco. Cal. 

New London Navy Yard, New London, Conn. 
Pensacola Navy Yard, Pensacola. Fla. 

Washington City Navv Yard, Washington, D. C. 


(T)IIXTKIMS CO XTA1NTNG THE I,AKG E9T CO Vi/AREAS 

*Un : ted States, 

Russia. 

Great Brita n, 

Ja pan, 

S pain, 

t. ! 0t J‘ er 0 U''V l ^V u ' ,K f:coai lie ms embrace an area of GOO.oOOscma 
•ai n .i.lv conjectural, and m many instances the bads are not workable. 


ates, 

193.000 sep miles. 

F ranee, 

3.500 


30.000 

India, 

1.coo 

n. 

11,900 k ‘ 

A ustria. 

1.800 


5.000 “ 

Germany, 

1,770 


3.500 k ‘ 

Belgiti m. 

.5 10 



miles. 


6 ; 

U 




A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


323 


THEOLOGICAL SEMINARIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 


D E N O MIX ATI 0 NS. 


Roman Catholic,.. 

Baptist, . 

Presbyterian, . 

Lutheran,. 

Protestant Episcopal,.. . 

Methodist Episcopal,. 

Congregational,. 

Unsectarian, 

Cumberland Presbyterian 

Reformed, .. 

Disciple,. 


NO. 

NO. 

SEM. 

PRFS. 

2! 

124 

2l 

88 

j . 16 

78 

Kij 

51, 

I 10 

!>•' 

13 

52 

11 

OP 

A 

•II 

1 

8 

» i( 

8 

8 

o| 

i 


NO. 

sxr. 


DENOMINATIONS. 


i NO. NO. NO. 
| SKM. PKKS.| STl' 


lHojl'ni versalist,.. 

2 11 

40 

OSGijUnited Presbyterians,.. 

2 7 

00 

675 iMethodist Episr. South.. 

2 7 

63 

4 I»r|Frce-Will Baptist,. 

2 0 

40 

278 New Church,. 

2 i 4 

4 

5551 African Meth. Episcopal, 

1 7 

10 

36 f Unitarian ... . 

1 6 

12 

35 

153 !iReformed Dutch,.. 

1 5 

122 |Moravian. . 

r s 

28 

5 :’;United Brethren,. 

15 111 

Total,. . 

.1 3 

17 

142 0331 

5248 


--- in iimcnui flic, unir ill uie y OI AieX- 

ico, and the other in Lima, Peru, established 1551. 

MINTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Carson Citv, Nevada; San Fran¬ 
cisco, California; Denver, Colorada. 

ASSAY OFFICES. 

New York City; Boise City, Idaho; Charlotte, North Carolina. 


THE SEVEN WISE MEN OF GREECE. 

Solon. Chilo, Pittacus, Bias, Periander, Cleobulus, and Thales. 

THE SEVEN WONDERS OF THE WORLD. 

1. The Pyramids of Egypt. 

2. The Pharos of Alexandria. 

3. The Walls and Hanging Gardens of Babylon. 

4. Tne Temple of Diana at Ephesus. « 

5. Tne Statute of the Olympian Jupiter. 

6. The Mausoleum of Artemesia. 

7. The Colossus at Rhodes. 

THE CENTER OF POPULATION. 


“ What statisticians understand by the term center of population, it mav be 
well to explain, is the point at which equilibrium would be reached were the 
country taken rs a plane surface without weight, but capable of sustaining 
weight, and the inhabitants distributed over it in number and position as they 
are found at tli2 time the census is taken, each inhabitant being supposed to 
be of equal weight, and consequently to exert pressure on the pivotal point in 
direct proportion to his distance therefrom.” According to this mode of com¬ 
putation, the center of population in 18S0 was found to-be at near Taylorsville, 
Kentucky, a little village about eight miles west by south of Cincinnati .—Nezv 
2 'ork Tribune. 

“ Cap^ Cod Ship Canal ” was commenced in 1 SS 1 , and when 
completed will cost $10,000,000. It is eight miles long, and con¬ 
nects Buzzard’s bay with Cape Cod bay. The distance between 
Boston and New York will be shortened about 100 miles. 

ATLANTIC CARLE. ( 1 S 79 .) 

There are six Atlantic cables—two Fiench—one from Noitheast- 
ern Massachusetts, and the other from Duxbury, Massachusetts, to 
St. Pierre, and thence to Brest; the other four extend from St. 
Pierre and Newfoundland to Ireland. 



























324 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


“ Carrying Coals to Newcastle ” is a proverbial phrase, and 
means doing a needless thing—taking something where least of 
all it is needed. Newcastle is a town in Northeastern England, 
the center of the coalmining region, a place where coals of all 
things are most abundant. The phrase finds its equivalent in the 
French, “ To carry water to the river,” and the Latin “ To carry 
wood to the Forest.” 

THE ATLANTIS. 

According to the tradition of the aqcient geographies, a large 
island lay in the Atlantic west of the northwest of Africa and was 
said to be very populous, comprising a race of mortals begotten by 
Neptune of mortal woman. They made war upon the nations of 
Africa and Europe, but were defeated by the Athenians. The 
inhabitants finally became desperately wicked, and were over¬ 
thrown by a deluge. This island is found on ancient maps, and 
several persons of note have given it endorsement. 

THE BAD LAN DS. 

This is a sterile region ioo miles long and 30 wide in South¬ 
eastern Dakota, and extending into Nebraska. The country 
around is a prairie, and the ,k Bad Lands” occupy a valley about 
300 feet deep, which seems to have sunk away from the rest of 
the world, and presents one of the most wonderful sights known. 
It looks like an immense city in ruins—a city surrounded by walls 
and bastions filled with palaces, gigantic domes, and monuments 
of the most striking and fantastic architecture. 

/ 

REFLECTIONS. 


We have now come to a place in our study where it is meet to 
pause and make a few reflections, to see the design of all this ma¬ 
jestic system of continents and oceans, of contour and relief, and to 
behold"the goodness and wisdom of God shining thiough it all. 

One great object in study should be to look into the beauties of 
a thing, to see its designs and adaptation, that we may acquire 
juster conceptions of the economy of nature, and her God. 

Have all the continents, islands and seas been created at random, 
with no purpose in their arrangement, or do they fulfill some great 
plan, and so show forth the wisdom of the Creator? It will be 
our pleasure to dwell upon this theme for a moment. Let us first 
consider briefly the historical functons of the continents. 

Asia is called the “ continent of orighis” It is characterized 
by loftv mountains, extensive plains, extremes of climate, fertile 
valleys," vast deserts, and barriers separating one region from an¬ 
other. There is hence the greatest diversity of animal and vege- 








A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


325 


table life. The valleys produce richly with little cultivation and 
are capable of supporting va>t multitudes of people, and being 
hemn^ed in on all side* by pathless deserts ard mountain walls of 
rock, fostered the origin of government, as well as peculiar indus¬ 
tries and races of people. The overflowing rivers, the necessary 
irrigation, and the change of seasons induced forethought anti 
gave birth to useful arts and habits of observation. 

This God designed to be the cradle of the human race and the 
home of its infancy; and here we first find the useful or domestic 
animals and the grains, fruits, etc., necessary toman’s needs. Had 
the human race been cradled in the almost measureless and fertile 
plains of America, with no bounds to keep.the race together, and 
no conflicts with nature, man would likely never have risen above 
the savage state, or would have consumed himself in war. 

o 

There were tour ancient centers of culture --China and Amoo 
Daria, the Euphrates and Tigris basins, the Ganges and Indus, and 
the Nile. 

Europe shows a great diversity of structure, smaller areas, less 
extremes of climate, and more fertile soil than Asia; besides vast 
resources in water communication and in minerals. It is especi- 
allv fitted to foster the development and progress of different 
nations; in every way to give the fullest expansion to commerce, 
manufacturing and the arts. Hence Europe is sometimes called 
the continent of development" 

America with its simplicity of structure, vast and fertile plains, 
is not intended to give birth to a new civilization, but to receive 
one already made. The free and easy communication between its 
parts tends to unity and strength, while differences ot climate and 
resources give incentives and variety to industry; and with its 
plains inclined to the Old World, invites with open arms its cul¬ 
ture and refinement, and aflbids them new fields ofaction and un¬ 
restrained expansion. 

To each of the northern continents there seems to be a special 
mission given; viz., to civilize or develop its southern partner. 
Asia has^its Australia, Europe its Africa, and North America its 
South America. 

God has not only created the human race, but has preserved it 
and given it its rudimentary education in that center of land masses , 
and when its valleys became filled he led them out and showed 
them first narrow seas to cross to more fertile regions, then greater 
seas and greater difficulties to overcome to win greater prizes, 
until man^has learned to subdue old ocean himself and to sur¬ 
mount the greatest continental barriers, and now calls upon the 
winds, lightnings, and the mightiest powers of land and sea to do 

him service. 




326 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


The thought of all this is beautiful, and as Guyot says, “ Truly 
no blind force gave our earth the forms so well adapted to per¬ 
form these functions. The conclusion is irresistible that the entire 
globe is a great organism, every feature of which is the outgrowth 
of a definite plan of the All-wise Creator for the education of the 
human family, and the manifestation of his own glory.” 

EXAMINATIONS. 


An examination paper should always be neatly and carefully 
prepared. For, however correctly the questions may be answered 
a poor paper betrays a want of taste, order, and system; and in the 
eyes of many, disqualifies the applicant for the place of trust. 

I have observed that as a rule that he who can prepare a neat 
examination paper either is or will make a good teacher. 

A few rules and a model are given to assist the pupil in pre¬ 
paring papers of this kind. 

1. Try to write neatly and see that no words are mispelled. 

2. Do not forget to apply the rules of punctuation which vou 
have learned, and if you have not learned any, see to it at once. 

3. Every question should be so answered as to indicate what 
the question has been. 

4. Number the answers as they are numbered on the question 
list, and leave, at least, the space of one line between the answers 
of each question. 

5. Begin every answer on a new line, even if there are two or 
more answers required in the same question. 

6. It you write with a pencil, see that it is well sharpened and 

then kept sharp. r 

7. Always lely on yourselj\ Never try to get a grade dishon¬ 
estly. 

S. Observe carefully the model on the next page, which is to 
guide you in the preparation of your. papers'. 

A few questions are submitted and answered. 


QUESTIONS. 


1. What does astronomical geography include? 

2. State the difference between Llanos and Selvas. 

3. Define canon, glacier, firth. 

4. Name the largest body of fresh water and the low 
of salt water on the globe. 

5. What is an absolute monarchy? Name one. 


est body 







A MANUAL OF GEOdhAPHY. 


327 


ANSWERS. 


Examination of Harry Wilson in geography. Sept. 25th, 1SS3. 


\ 


II. 


III. 


IV 


Astronomical geography includes the considera¬ 
tion of the earth as a planet, of its form, sizes, 
motions, measurements, and modes of represent¬ 
ing the surface by maps. 


The Llanos are the vast grassy plains of Orinoco, 
while Selvas are the heavily wooded plains of 
val!eV of the Amazon. 


A canon is a deep gorge between high and 
steep banks worn by water courses. 


A Glacier is a vast field or mass of ice and 
snow slowly moving down the valleys of a 
mountain. 


K firth is the wide open mouth of a river affect¬ 
ed by the tides. 


The largest body of fresh water is Lake Superior. 
The lowest body of salt water is the Dead Sea. 


An absolute monarchy is where the whole su¬ 
preme power lies in the hands of one person. 


Russia is an absolute monarchy. 


Grade 
% 


ERRATA. 

Several textual errors have crept into the pages of this book, in 
the course of printing and as 1 would lead no one astray they aie 
noted here. 

Page 62, last paragraph, Russian should read Persian. 

Page 93, last line of 1st paragraph, read Great Bear Lake in¬ 
stead of Lake Winnipeg. 

Page 109, June 3rd should read July 2d. 

Page 133, 'Minerals —third sentence should read, coal and copper 
are wanting in Florida and Louisiana:.. coral is obtained, etc. 

Page 25, last paragraph, and last li ne of 3rd sentence—read to 
instead of on 































328 


A MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. 


INDEX. 


Geography and History— 

Definitions .. 6 

Mathematical Geography— 7 
Benefits arising from the earth’s 

inclination. 23 

Circles of the earth. 16 

Classification of Geography. 5 

Globes and maps. 15 

Instruments. 14 

Latitude and longitude. 17 

Motions of the earth. 11 

Orbits of planets. 9 

Points, etc. 24 

Shape of the earth. 9 

Seasons.. 22 

The planets. 7 

Time.. 13 

Zones. g 

Physical Geography— 26 

Benefits of ocean currents. 43 

Caucasian race. 62 

Contour forms... 28 

Divisions of the earth’s surface. . 27 

Depth of the ocean, etc. 37 

Deltas.. 46 

Earthquakes... 34 

Formation of the earth. 26 

General view of mountains, .. 31 

Gradual elevat’ns and subsidences 31 

Land systems of water. 44 

Movements of the ocean. 38 

Meteorology. 49 

Moisture of the atmosphere. 33 

Optical and luminous phenomena 58 

Ocean currents. 41 

Oceanic system.35 

Physical and political geography 

compared. 63 

Relief forms. 29 

Races of men. 61 

Rivers.. 43 

Springs. 47 

Saltness of the sea. 36 

Tides . 

Temperature. 33 

Tne three kingdoms of nature.. . 59 

Utility of mountains. 32 

Uses of clouds. 37 

Volcanoes. 32 

Water divisions. 2c 

Waves.4b 

Winds. 

X" 832 


Political Geography— 65 

Government.66 

General view of the world. 77 

Historical outline. 78 

Languages of mankind.73 

Occupations of mankind. 75 

Religions. 71 

States of society.65 

Descriptive Geography— 86 

Africa. 270 

Asia.24S 

Alaska.1^3 

British America.164 

Brazil.209 

Chinese Empire.. . , .262 

Central States.137 

Climatic and other influences.. . 

Danish America.1^9 

Dominion of the Khedive.283 

Europe.213 

Great Britain.234 

Mexico.,.174 

Middle States.119 

Models for map exercises. 87 

New England States.no 

North America. 88 

Ohio.299 

Oceanica.287 

Southern States.128 

South America. 194 

United States.. 98 j 

Western States.146 

West Indies.187 


Miscellaneous— 

Derivation and signification of 

geographical names.313 

Examinations.326 

History of geography. 80 

Names of countries.. .310 

Nicknames of the States. 210 

XT„4._^ , . ° 

97 


Notes to teachers 
Origin of the names of the States 308 

On the study of geography.85 

On teaching geogiaphy. 83 

Popular names of cities.. 314 

Popular names of other places. ,312 

Reflections.324 

Statistics, etc. 318 

Suggestions to teachers. 86 

Topic list. 86 


'i 


* 



























































































































































































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